Loose-Leaf For Organizational Behavior 7th Edition

The view that effective leaders need to be aware of, feel comfortable with, and act consistently with their values, personality, and self-concept is known as transformational leadership. Answer: FALSEThe view that effective leaders need to be aware of, feel comfortable with, and act consistently with their values, personality, and self-concept

The five interpersonal conflict management styles are distinguished by the level of interdependence between the conflicting parties. Answer: FALSEThe five interpersonal conflict management styles are distinguished by the degree of assertiveness and cooperativeness of the parties involved.Refer: Exhibit 11.3 Answer: FALSEThe five interpersonal conflict management styles are distinguished by the degree

The ideas that form during the illumination stage of creativity need to be verified through logical evaluation and experimentation. Answer: TRUEIlluminations are merely rough ideas. Their usefulness requires verification through detailed logical evaluation, experimentation, and further creative insight. Answer: TRUEIlluminations are merely rough ideas. Their usefulness requires verification through detailed logical

Language reflects an organization's dominant values but not the values of its subcultures. Answer: FALSEThe language of the workplace speaks volumes about the company's culture. Language also highlights values held by organizational subcultures. Answer: FALSEThe language of the workplace speaks volumes about the company's culture. Language also highlights values held by

Research suggests that decision makers do not evaluate several alternatives when they find an opportunity. Answer: TRUEResearch suggests that decision makers do not evaluate several alternatives when they findan opportunity; after all, the opportunity is the solution, so there is no need to look for others. An opportunity is usually

Temporary cross-functional teams can be used to encourage informal communication as a coordinating mechanism. Answer: TRUEAnother way that larger organizations encourage coordination through informal communication is by organizing employees from several departments into temporary teams. Answer: TRUEAnother way that larger organizations encourage coordination through informal communication is by organizing employees from several

One problem with negotiation is that it tends to produce compliance rather than commitment to the change process. Answer: TRUENegotiation tends to produce compliance rather than commitment to the change process. Answer: TRUENegotiation tends to produce compliance rather than commitment to the change process. Answer: TRUE Negotiation tends to produce compliance rather than

Some team-building interventions clarify the team's performance goals and increase the team's motivation to accomplish these goals. Answer: TRUESome team-building interventions clarify the team's performance goals, increase the team'smotivation to accomplish these goals, and establish a mechanism for systematic feedback on the team's goal performance. Answer: TRUESome team-building interventions clarify the

Continuance commitment motivates employees to increase their work effort beyond expectations. Answer: FALSEEmployees with high levels of continuance commitment are more likely to have lower performance and are less likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors. Answer: FALSEEmployees with high levels of continuance commitment are more likely to have lower performance

In the achievement-oriented leadership style, leaders expect employees to perform at an optimal level and set subordinate goals. Answer: FALSEIn the achievement-oriented leadership style the leader sets challenging goals, and expects employees to perform at their highest level. Answer: FALSEIn the achievement-oriented leadership style the leader sets challenging goals, and expects employees

The expectancy theory of motivation states that people naturally direct their effort towards behaviors they believe are most likely to lead to desired outcomes. Answer: TRUEExpectancy theory states that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes. In other words, we are motivated to

Organizational rewards are powerful systems that refreeze behaviors. Answer: TRUEOrganizational rewards are powerful systems that refreeze behaviors. Rewards should be realigned to motivate and reinforce desired behaviors. Answer: TRUEOrganizational rewards are powerful systems that refreeze behaviors. Rewards should be realigned to motivate and reinforce desired behaviors. Answer: TRUE Organizational rewards are powerful systems

Consistency occurs when we are confident about "who we are," can describe our important identities to others, and provide the same description of ourselves across time. Answer: FALSEConsistency exists when most of the individual's self-perceived roles require similar personality traits, values, and other attributes. Clarity occurs when we are confident

Organizations should use transformational leadership instead of managerial leadership. Answer: FALSEOrganizations require leaders who both manage employees and transform the work unit or organization. Managing improves organizational efficiency, whereas transformational leadership steers companies to a better course of action. So, both forms of leadership are essential to organizational success. Answer: FALSEOrganizations

The nominal group technique removes the problems of evaluation apprehension and production blocking. Answer: FALSEProduction blocking and evaluation apprehension would occur to some extent in the nominal group technique. Answer: FALSEProduction blocking and evaluation apprehension would occur to some extent in the nominal group technique. Answer: FALSE Production blocking and evaluation apprehension would

Many of the popular organizational culture models and measures oversimplify the variety of organizational cultures and correctly assume that organizations can easily be identified within these categories. Answer: FALSEMany of the popular organizational culture models and measures oversimplify the variety of organizational cultures and falsely presume that organizations can easily

Corporate social responsibility has no effect on financial performance. Answer: FALSECompanies with a positive CSR reputation tend to have better financial performance, moreloyal employees (stronger organizational identification), and better relations with customers, job applicants, and other stakeholders. Answer: FALSECompanies with a positive CSR reputation tend to have better financial performance, moreloyal

The self-fulfilling prophecy tends to be stronger when employees are new to the job than when employees have worked in that job for a few years. Answer: TRUESelf-fulfilling prophecies are more likely to occur at the beginning of a relationship, such as when employees are first hired. It is also

When employees apply a cost-benefit analysis to a potential change, they consider only their own self-interest. Answer: TRUEAlthough employees consider their personal costs and benefits from a change, their resistance or commitment also depends on their belief that the change will benefit or harm the team and company. Answer: TRUEAlthough employees

Managing and satisfying the interests of stakeholders is not very challenging because stakeholders all have the same interests and goals. Answer: FALSEUnderstanding, managing, and satisfying the interests of stakeholders is more challenging than it sounds because stakeholders have conflicting interests and organizations don't have the resources to satisfy every stakeholder

Multisource feedback is information about an employee's performance, collected from a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers. Answer: TRUEMultisource (360-degree) feedback is a social form of feedback that has been widely used in organizations. As the name implies, multisource feedback is information about an employee's performance, collected

Artifacts provide valuable evidence about a company's culture. Answer: TRUEArtifacts are the observable symbols and signs of an organization's culture, such as the wayvisitors are greeted, the organization's physical layout, and how employees are rewarded. Artifacts provide valuable evidence about a company's culture. Answer: TRUEArtifacts are the observable symbols and signs

Creative ideas can emerge when asking people unfamiliar with the problem to explore the problem with you. Answer: TRUEOne of the strategies to encourage creativity involves asking people unfamiliar with the issue to explore the problem with you. You would state the objectives and give some facts and then let

The representativeness heuristic is a natural tendency to assign higher probabilities to objects or events that are easier to recall from memory. Answer: FALSEThe availability heuristic is a natural tendency to assign higher probabilities to objects or events that are easier to recall from memory, even though ease of recall

Organizations should view the grapevine as a competitor. Answer: TRUECorporate leaders need to view the grapevine as a competitor, and meet this challenge by directly informing employees of news before it spreads throughout the grapevine. Answer: TRUECorporate leaders need to view the grapevine as a competitor, and meet this challenge by

One type of factor that can change a person's moral sensitivity is expertise or knowledge of prescriptive norms or rules. Answer: TRUEExpertise and knowledge of prescriptive norms and rules are one of the factors that can predict and change a person's moral sensitivity. Answer: TRUEExpertise and knowledge of prescriptive norms and

Teams develop their first real sense of cohesion during the norming stage of team development. Answer: TRUEDuring the norming stage, the team develops its first real sense of cohesion as roles are established and a consensus forms around group objectives and a common or complementary team-based mental model. Answer: TRUEDuring the

Leadership is the ability to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute to organizational effectiveness. Answer: TRUELeadership is best defined as influencing, motivating, and enabling others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations. Answer: TRUELeadership is best defined as influencing, motivating, and enabling others to contribute toward the

Motivation is closely related to the concept of employee engagement. Answer: TRUEEmployee engagement is defined as an individual's emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work-related goals. Answer: TRUEEmployee engagement is defined as an individual's emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and

One of the fastest ways to acquire knowledge is to hire individuals or purchase entire companies that have valued knowledge. Answer: TRUEKnowledge acquisition includes extracting information and ideas from the external environment as well as through insight. One of the fastest and most powerful ways to acquire knowledge is by

Change agents can often single handedly lead a change initiative. Answer: FALSEOne of the great truths of organizational change is that change agents cannot lead the initiative alone. Answer: FALSEOne of the great truths of organizational change is that change agents cannot lead the initiative alone. Answer: FALSE One of the great truths

When contemplating a career, we compare our images of that job with our current and desired images of ourselves. Answer: TRUEWhen contemplating a career, we compare our images of that job with our current and desired images of ourselves. Answer: TRUEWhen contemplating a career, we compare our images of that job

Social support cannot improve a person's self-confidence, but it can help a person withdraw from a stressor. Answer: FALSESocial support occurs when coworkers, supervisors, family members, friends, and others provide emotional and informational support to buffer an individual's stress experience. It potentially improves the person's optimism and self-confidence. Answer: FALSESocial support

People who learn to empathize with others are less likely to engage in fundamental attribution errors. Answer: TRUEEmpathizing with others improves our sensitivity to the external causes of another person'sperformance and behavior, thereby reducing fundamental attribution error. Answer: TRUEEmpathizing with others improves our sensitivity to the external causes of another person'sperformance

The first step in the Four-D model of appreciative inquiry is dreaming, in which participants envision what might be possible in an ideal organization. Answer: FALSEThe Four-D model of appreciative inquiry begins with discovery, which is identifying the positive elements of the observed events or organization. Answer: FALSEThe Four-D model of

Multisource feedback tends to provide more complete and accurate information than feedback from a supervisor alone. Answer: TRUEMultisource feedback tends to provide more complete and accurate information than feedback from a supervisor alone. It is particularly useful when the supervisor is unable to observe the employee's behavior or performance throughout

The best way to manage resistance to change among those who will clearly lose out from the change is to introduce coercion practices. Answer: FALSENegotiation is a form of influence that involves the promise of benefits or resources in exchange for the target person's compliance with the influencer's request. This

Process losses are the resources expended to develop and maintain an effective team. Answer: TRUEProcess losses are the resources (including time and energy) expended toward team development and maintenance. Answer: TRUEProcess losses are the resources (including time and energy) expended toward team development and maintenance. Answer: TRUE Process losses are the resources (including

Organizational politics tends to increase in situations where decisions become routine and programmed. Answer: FALSEOrganizational politics can become a problem during times of organizational change, so politics can be minimized through effective organizational change practices. Answer: FALSEOrganizational politics can become a problem during times of organizational change, so politics can be

Morphological analysis is a test used to identify people with a creative personality. Answer: FALSEMorphological analysis is an associative play activity that involves listing different dimensions of a system and the elements of each dimension and then looking at each combination. Morphological analysis promotes creative thinking. It is not a

Learned capabilities refer to the skills and knowledge that one has actually acquired. Answer: TRUELearned capabilities are the skills and knowledge that one currently possesses. These capabilities include the physical and mental skills and knowledge one has acquired. Answer: TRUELearned capabilities are the skills and knowledge that one currently possesses. These

A transactional psychological contract is a long-term attachment to a company. Answer: FALSETransactional contracts are primarily short-term economic exchanges. Answer: FALSETransactional contracts are primarily short-term economic exchanges. Answer: FALSE Transactional contracts are primarily short-term economic exchanges. How implicit leadership operates varies between different cultures. Answer: TRUEThere is a strong tendency in the U.S. and

The conflict model starts with the sources of conflict. Answer: TRUEThe conflict model starts with the sources of conflict. Incompatible goals, differentiation etc. are examples of sources of conflict.Refer: Exhibit 11.2 Answer: TRUEThe conflict model starts with the sources of conflict. Incompatible goals, differentiation etc. are examples of sources of conflict.Refer:

In expectancy theory, E-to-P expectancies are influenced by the individual's belief that he or she can successfully complete the task. Answer: TRUEE-to-P expectancies are influenced by the individual's belief that he or she can successfullycomplete the task. Answer: TRUEE-to-P expectancies are influenced by the individual's belief that he or she can

Scientific management is mainly associated with high levels of job specialization. Answer: TRUEScientific management is the practice of systematically partitioning work into its smallest elements and standardizing tasks to achieve maximum efficiency. It is mainly associated with high levels of job specialization and standardization of tasks to achieve maximum efficiency. Answer:

People might gain power by convincing others that they have something of value. Answer: TRUEPeople might generate power by convincing others that they control something of value, whether or not they actually control that resource. This perception is also formed from the power holder's behavior, such as those who are

In most self-directed work teams, the supervisor assigns tasks that individual team members perform. Answer: FALSEOne of the distinctive features of self-directed teams is that they have substantial autonomyover the execution of their tasks. In particular, these teams plan, organize, and control work activities with little or no direct involvement

A significant discovery in equity theory research is that people tend to keep one specific comparison other throughout their working lives. Answer: FALSEA comparison other is often someone else in a similar position, such as a co-worker, but it might also be someone or a group of people in other jobs.

Most organizational culture models oversimplify the diversity of cultural values in organizations. Answer: TRUEMany of the popular organizational culture models and measures oversimplify the variety of organizational cultures and falsely presume that organizations can easily be identified within these categories. Answer: TRUEMany of the popular organizational culture models and measures oversimplify

In quiet settings, most information is communicated verbally rather than nonverbally. Answer: FALSENonverbal communication includes facial gestures, voice intonation, physical distance, and even silence. Nonverbal communication occurs even during silence. Even in quiet, face-to-face meetings, most information is communicated nonverbally. Answer: FALSENonverbal communication includes facial gestures, voice intonation, physical distance, and

Management by walking around occurs when senior executives get out of their offices and communicate face-to-face with employees. Answer: TRUEManagement by walking around occurs when senior executives move around and interact face-to-face with employees of various departments. Answer: TRUEManagement by walking around occurs when senior executives move around and interact face-to-face

University students tend to value people-oriented instructors over task-oriented instructors. Answer: FALSEResearch suggests that university students value task-oriented instructors because they want clear objectives and well-prepared lectures that abide by the unit's objectives. Answer: FALSEResearch suggests that university students value task-oriented instructors because they want clear objectives and well-prepared lectures that

Assimilation is the most common form of cultural merging strategy. Answer: FALSEAssimilation is rare. Answer: FALSEAssimilation is rare. Answer: FALSE Assimilation is rare. Resistance is a form of voice. Answer: TRUEResistance is also a form of voice, so discussion potentially improves procedural justice. Answer: TRUEResistance is also a form of voice, so discussion potentially improves

Knowledge-based trust offers a low level of potential and is more unstable because it is exploratory in its nature. Answer: FALSEKnowledge-based trust offers a higher potential level of trust and is more stable because it develops over time. Answer: FALSEKnowledge-based trust offers a higher potential level of trust and is more

Team members do not conform to team norms unless other team members apply reinforcement or punishment. Answer: FALSETeam members often conform to prevailing norms without direct reinforcement or punishment because they identify with the group and want to align their behavior with the team's values. Answer: FALSETeam members often conform to

Team members typically hold one or more formal roles in the team as well as roles that they informally fulfill at various times. Answer: TRUETeam members are assigned specific roles within their formal job responsibilities. Yet teammembers also assume informal roles that suit their personalities and values as well as

The sensing stage of active listening includes empathizing and organizing information. Answer: FALSESensing is the process of receiving signals from the sender and paying attention to them. Evaluating, which follows the sensing stage, includes empathizing and organizing information. Answer: FALSESensing is the process of receiving signals from the sender and paying

Conflict tends to be higher when rules and procedures exist. Answer: FALSEAmbiguous rules or the complete lack of rules breed conflict. This occurs because uncertainty increases the risk that one party intends to interfere with the other party's goals.When clear rules exist, employees instead know what to expect and have

Prevention, forecasting, and absorption are three types of expertise that cope with uncertainty in organizations. Answer: TRUEThese are strategies to help organizations cope with uncertainty. Answer: TRUEThese are strategies to help organizations cope with uncertainty. Answer: TRUE These are strategies to help organizations cope with uncertainty. Homogenization and differentiation are two activities in the

Organizational countercultures can potentially create conflict and dissension among employees. Answer: TRUESubcultures, particularly countercultures, potentially create conflict and dissension among employees. Answer: TRUESubcultures, particularly countercultures, potentially create conflict and dissension among employees. Answer: TRUE Subcultures, particularly countercultures, potentially create conflict and dissension among employees. Equity theory research has found that employees who feel over-rewarded

Subjective expected utility refers to how much the selected alternative benefits or satisfies the decision maker. Answer: TRUESubjective expected utility is the probability (expectation) of satisfaction (utility) for each alternative. Answer: TRUESubjective expected utility is the probability (expectation) of satisfaction (utility) for each alternative. Answer: TRUE Subjective expected utility is the probability (expectation)

Inconsistencies and bias in reward systems are often increased because of gainsharing. Answer: FALSEInconsistencies and bias can be minimized through gainsharing, ESOPs, and other plans that use objective performance measures. Answer: FALSEInconsistencies and bias can be minimized through gainsharing, ESOPs, and other plans that use objective performance measures. Answer: FALSE Inconsistencies and bias

People with high achievement orientation tend to value assertiveness, competitiveness, and materialism. Answer: TRUEPeople with a high achievement orientation value assertiveness, competitiveness, and materialism. They appreciate people who are tough, and they favor the acquisition of money and material goods. Answer: TRUEPeople with a high achievement orientation value assertiveness, competitiveness, and

Action research is the process of determining whether the change process is ethical or not. Answer: FALSEAction research is a problem-focused change process that combines action orientation (changing attitudes and behavior) and research orientation (testing theory through data collection and analysis). Answer: FALSEAction research is a problem-focused change process that combines

By avoiding written documentation of how to operate equipment or serve customers, employees are maximizing their expert power through non-substitutability. Answer: TRUEEmployees become nonsubstitutable when they possess knowledge (such as operating equipment or serving clients) that is not documented or readily available to others. Answer: TRUEEmployees become nonsubstitutable when they possess

Employee involvement potentially improves both the decision-making quality and the commitment of employees. Answer: TRUEEmployee involvement can potentially improve the number and quality of solutions generated. Employee involvement also tends to strengthen employee commitment to the decision. Rather than viewing themselves as agents of someone else's decision, staff members feel

Diversity awareness programs mainly educate employees about the value of diversity and problems with stereotyping. Answer: TRUEDiversity awareness training tries to minimize discrimination by making people aware of systemic discrimination as well as prejudices that occur through stereotyping. This trainingalso attempts to dispel myths about people from various cultural and

In a typical matrix structure, several satellite organizations are bee-hived around a core firm. Answer: FALSEIn a typical network structure, several satellite organizations are bee-hived around a core firm. The core firm orchestrates the network process and provides one or two other core competencies, such as marketing or product development. Answer:

Cognitive dissonance occurs only when others observe an inconsistency between our beliefs, feelings, and behavior. Answer: FALSECognitive dissonance occurs when we perceive an inconsistency in our beliefs, feelings, and behavior. This inconsistency generates emotions (such as feeling hypocritical) that motivate us to create more consistency by changing one or more

Like self-enhancement, self-verification does not include seeking feedback that is not necessarily flattering. Answer: FALSEUnlike self-enhancement, self-verification includes seeking feedback that is not necessarily flattering (e.g., I'm a numbers person, not a people person.). Answer: FALSEUnlike self-enhancement, self-verification includes seeking feedback that is not necessarily flattering (e.g., I'm a numbers person,

As people become more powerful they tend to become less goal-oriented, less motivated, and more focused on gaining additional power. Answer: FALSEUnder the right conditions, employees who receive more power feel more empowered, which tends to increase their motivation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance. Answer: FALSEUnder the right conditions,

Nonprogrammed decisions require all steps in the decision model because the problems they present are new, complex, or ill-defined. Answer: TRUENonprogrammed decisions require all steps in the decision model because the problems are new, complex, or ill-defined. Answer: TRUENonprogrammed decisions require all steps in the decision model because the problems are new,

Task forces are temporary groups that typically investigate a particular problem and disband when the decision is made. Answer: TRUETask force teams are usually multi-skilled, temporary teams whose assignment is to solve aproblem, realize an opportunity, or design a product or service.Refer: Exhibit 8.1 Answer: TRUETask force teams are usually multi-skilled,

The distributive justice principle states that everyone should receive the same rewards in life. Answer: FALSEDistributive justice refers to perceived fairness in the outcomes we receive compared to our contributions and the outcomes and contributions of others. Answer: FALSEDistributive justice refers to perceived fairness in the outcomes we receive compared to

According to the open systems perspective, most organizations have one working part rather than many sub-components. Answer: FALSEThe open systems perspective states that organizations depend on the external environmentfor resources, affect that environment through their output, and consist of internal subsystems that transform inputs to outputs. Answer: FALSEThe open systems perspective

Some level of stress is a necessary part of life for every individual. Answer: TRUESome level of stress'called eustress'is a necessary part of life because it activates and motivates people to achieve goals, change their environments, and succeed in life's challenges. Answer: TRUESome level of stress'called eustress'is a necessary part of

The observable demographic or physiological differences in people, such as their race, ethnicity, gender, age, and physical disabilities is called deep-level diversity. Answer: FALSEThe observable demographic or physiological differences in people, such as their race, ethnicity, gender, age, and physical disabilities is called surface-level diversity. Answer: FALSEThe observable demographic or physiological

The relationship between job satisfaction and job performance would likely be stronger if more organizations provided valued rewards for good performance. Answer: TRUEHigher performers receive more rewards (including recognition) and consequently are more satisfied than low-performing employees who receive fewer rewards. The connectionbetween job satisfaction and performance isn't stronger because

Very large rewards (relative to an employee's regular income) can result in lower, rather than higher, performance. Answer: TRUERecent studied have even found that very large rewards (relative to the usual income) can result in lower, rather than higher, performance. Answer: TRUERecent studied have even found that very large rewards (relative to

Organizational behavior emerged as a distinct field around the 1940s. Before that, organizations had not been studied at all. Answer: FALSEOrganizational behavior emerged as a distinct field around the early 1940s, but organizations have been studied by experts in other fields for many centuries. Answer: FALSEOrganizational behavior emerged as a distinct

People are empowered when they feel self-determination, meaning, competence, and impact regarding their role in the organization. Answer: TRUEEmpowerment is a psychological concept represented by four dimensions: self-determination, meaning, competence, and impact of the individual's role in the organization. Answer: TRUEEmpowerment is a psychological concept represented by four dimensions: self-determination, meaning,

Mental imagery helps us to anticipate and work out solutions to potential obstacles in our work. Answer: TRUEMental imagery involves mentally practicing the task, anticipating obstacles to goal accomplishment, and working out solutions to those obstacles before they occur. By mentally walking through the activities required to accomplish the task,

Individuals with high neuroticism usually experience lower stress levels because they are less prone to anxiety. Answer: FALSEIndividuals with low neuroticism (high emotional stability) usually experience lower stresslevels because, by definition, they are less prone to anxiety, depression, and other negative emotions. Answer: FALSEIndividuals with low neuroticism (high emotional stability) usually

According to four-drive theory, organizations maximize motivation by focusing employees on opportunities to fulfill only one of the four drives. Answer: FALSEThe best workplaces for employee motivation and well-being offer conditions that help employees fulfill all four drives. Answer: FALSEThe best workplaces for employee motivation and well-being offer conditions that help

When making an internal or external attribution about a person's behavior, we tend to look at whether the person has acted this way in the past and in other situations and whether other people have acted similarly in the same situation. Answer: TRUEWhen making an internal or external attribution about

Open space arrangements in workstations increase communication and potentially decrease noise, distractions, and loss of privacy. Answer: FALSEAlthough open space arrangements increase communication, they also potentially increase noise, distractions, and loss of privacy. Answer: FALSEAlthough open space arrangements increase communication, they also potentially increase noise, distractions, and loss of privacy. Answer: FALSE Although

Moods are less intense emotional states that are directed toward something or somebody in particular. Answer: FALSEEmotions are directed toward someone or something. This differs from moods, which are not directed toward anything in particular and tend to be longer-term emotional states. Answer: FALSEEmotions are directed toward someone or something. This

Emotions are communications to ourselves, which serve to put us in a state of readiness. Answer: TRUEEmotions put us in a state of readiness. When we get worried, for example, our heart rate and blood pressure increase to make our body better prepared to engage in fight or flight. Answer: TRUEEmotions

Resource scarcity is a potential source of conflict in organizations. Answer: TRUEResource scarcity generates conflict because each person or unit requiring the same resource necessarily undermines others who also need that resource to fulfill their goals. Answer: TRUEResource scarcity generates conflict because each person or unit requiring the same resource necessarily