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Can the set of numbers be compared?
Is the evidence consistent with the known facts and other evidence?
Lines of argument on advantages claimed from a specific proposal:
The speaker failed to explain that the proposal has the power or the means to solve
the ill.
The speaker failed to show that had the proposal been in effect, it would have
prevented the ill that exists.
The speaker failed to show that some counterforce would not prevent the proposal
from removing the ill.
Fallacies
Quite often, claims are made in arguments that sound valid but also seem a bit fishy.
Usually, audiences will stop a moment to try to figure out why a speaker’s claims seem
suspicious but will eventually continue listening to the speaker’s comments. Although a
A. Non sequitur: An argument by non sequitur is one in which the claim made does not
follow from the evidence provided. For example, an arguer might state, “Evidence
B. Straw arguments: Straw arguments are used quite often in everyday discussion, as
well as in the most formal debate. A speaker engages in a straw argument when
poorly presenting an opponent’s argument for purposes of knocking it down. For
instance, in 2009 President Barack Obama sat down with students in Istanbul, Turkey
to come together? Or, why are you reaching out to the Iranians, because the U.S. and
Iran can never agree on anything? My attitude is, is that all these things are hard. I
Chances are, those who were questioning whether Obama could accomplish all of his
goals would not characterize their critiques as suggestions to avoid reaching out or
C. Slippery slope: Slippery slope arguments are also used frequently. People who make
this type of argument usually claim that one action will cause a chain reaction over
which people will have no control. For example, members of Congress discuss issues
of gun control quite often. Republicans, who have traditionally disliked gun-control
D. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc: This Latin phrase literally means “after the fact, therefore
because of the fact.” People who use this type of reasoning will claim that because
one thing followed another, the original thing was the cause. More specifically,
parents often blame broken household items on the person they last saw using the
E. Ad hominem: Ad hominem is the first type of argument most people become aware
of. Literally, ad hominem means “to the person.” Arguments made to the person are
intended to attack the messenger rather than the message. Children often call one
F. Red herring: Red herring is the type of argument that introduces immaterial
information into a debate in order to divert attention away from the issues at hand.
Extraneous knowledge, data, or facts that do not directly relate to the argument may
temporarily distract the audience from the primary issues but do not add to evidence
Conclusion
Although the preceding material introduces a lot of specific terminology and names, it
also describes concepts that communicators use every day. These ideas are organized to
References
Adler, J. (1997, March 31). Unbeliever’s quest. Time, 64–65.
Huber, R. B. (1963). Influencing through argument. New York: David McKay.
Lawson-Tancred, H. C. (1991). Aristotle: The art of rhetoric. New York: Penguin.
Loeb Dieter, O. A. (1950). Stasis. Speech monographs, 3, 346–377.
Obama, B. H. (2009, April). Remarks of President Barack Obama at Student Roundtable.
Retrieved March 25, 2011, from www.whitehouse.gov.
Warnick, B., & Inch, E. S. (1994). Critical thinking and communication: The use of
reason in argument. New York: Macmillan.
Ziegelmueller, G. W., & Dause, C. A. (1975). Argumentation: Inquiry and advocacy.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Organizing and Outlining the Persuasive Debate
Time: 4 minutes
Debate Speaking Order Time (in minutes)
2. First negative speaker 4
4. Second negative speaker 4
6. Rebuttal by affirmative team 2
7. Audience questions and answers 10
Rationale: Traditionally, the affirmative side goes first because it is indicting the status
quo. Not until an argument is put forth is there reason for the negative side to speak. To
Steps for Building a Debate/Debate Job Descriptions
The first affirmative speaker has three specific jobs.
2. Define ambiguous terms.
3. Present support or reasons for the audience to believe the resolution (the cause of the
ill) is true, and present a cure, or a solution.
The first negative speaker has three specific jobs:
1. Identify the resolution, and present the negative thesis regarding the falseness of the
2. Present the negative speaker’s definitions of ambiguous terms. These may or may not
3. Present the reasons that the resolution is false.
1. Remind us of what the affirmative thesis is and briefly explain why this argument is
stronger.
3. Employ the lines of argument to test the validity of the claims made by the negative
speaker. This person will also look for fallacious reasoning in these arguments.
The job of the second negative speaker, like that of the second affirmative speaker, is
refutation. This speaker must:
The affirmative rebuttal is much more difficult. The speaker must:
1. Explain the affirmative thesis, and explain how the affirmative side has supported its
3. Defend against questions raised by the negative speaker in relation to the affirmative
Outline Worksheet for Group Presentation Option 2
Title:
Speakers:
Specific Purpose:
Intended Audience:
Introduction
I. Attention-getter:
II. Identify “intended audience”:
III. Establishment of ethos:
IV. Thematic statement: recommending a strategy (ideas for today and tomorrow)
V. Introduce group members and the topic each will be speaking on.
(Transition: to the next speaker)
I. Vision Statement
A. State the vision and long-term direction. Use subpoints and/or supporting
material.
(Internal summary)
(Transition)
II. Goals and Objectives
A. State the desired goal.
B. State the desired objectives.
(Internal summary)
(Transition)
III. Today’s Situation
A. Summary of the current situation. Number items or use bullets; discuss details
verbally.
1.
2.
3.
(Internal summary)
(Transition)
IV. How Did We Get Here?
A. Any relevant historical information
B. Original assumptions that are no longer valid
(Internal summary)
(Transition)
V. Description of Available Options
A. State the strategies you recommend and whether there are other options.
B. List advantages and disadvantages of each.
(Internal summary)
(Transition)
VI. Cost Analysis
A. Cost of each option
B. Comparison of rewards versus cost
(Internal summary)
(Transition)
VII. Recommendation
A. Recommend one or more of the strategies.
B. Summarize the results if things go as proposed.
C. Action (what to do next)
(Internal summary)
(Transition)
Description for Service Learning Speech
Time: 5–6 minutes
At the beginning of the course, after a discussion of the importance of civic engagement,
assign students a service learning project that will culminate in an end-of-semester speech
about the experience. Students can choose one of the following options for their project:
1. Volunteer at an agency: Students can volunteer at senior citizen centers, youth
facilities, after-school programs, and so on.
2. Provide a service to an organization: Students can provide services such as creating
advertisements or brochures, organizing fund-raisers, and so on.
3. Become involved in a social or political cause: Students can assist a political
candidate, campaign for or against a law or policy, organize protests or debates, and
so on.
These suggestions are not intended to be exhaustive; allow your students freedom and
creativity in choosing their service learning project. In order to ensure that they are
appropriate and relevant, you may want to approve the projects before participation
begins. You may also consider requiring students to volunteer a certain number of hours
per semester before delivering the speech.
After students have completed their service learning projects, they will prepare an
informative or persuasive speech about their experience. Because of the unique nature of
each project, it is important to allow for variation in these final speeches. Some students
may present a critical reflection on their experience, or a recommendation to their
classmates. Others may simply want to inform the class about an important issue or
cause. Whatever their choice, be sure to emphasize that students must adhere to the
public speaking principles previously covered in class. Depending on each student’s
individual project and speech, you can utilize the Outline Worksheets and Grading Sheets
for Informative Speech 2 or Persuasive Speech 3, located in this manual.
Other Requirements
Students must have at least 3 to 4 verbal citations in their speeches.
Students must use at least one presentation aid.
Students must provide some type of documentation verifying their service learning
project (the exact nature of this documentation is up to you as the instructor).
SAMPLE STUDENT OUTLINES
Sample Outline for Special Occasion Speech 1
Title: Instructor of the Year
Speaker: Sarah M. Biller
Specific Purpose: To honor one of the University of Oklahoma’s finest professors
Thesis Statement: An excellent teacher is not only an individual who excels in the areas
of teaching, research, and service; he or she is also someone who reaches out to students
to facilitate their learning process and their enjoyment of class material.
Introduction
1. Attention-getter (Story of the first day of class): I was a freshman, and it was the
first day of college calculus. My teacher wrote the word play on the board and asked
us what we associated with this word. There were many responses from the class, but
not one of the students said the word learning. Then she told us that Aristotle defines
play as the ultimate form of learning. It was during that semester that I learned
calculus by playing.
2. Establishment of ethos: My name is Sarah Biller; I am here as a former student,
colleague, and personal friend of this year’s recipient of the Instructor of the Year
Award.
3. Thematic statement: Instructors who are nominated for this award must display
leadership, dedication to students in and outside the classroom, facilitate learning, and
(most of all) genuinely care about the students here at OU.
4. Preview (each main point): First I will begin by showing how this particular teacher
has proved her ability to lead and her dedication to the learning process. Next I will
illustrate how this instructor, through her caring nature, teaches students to enjoy
learning.
(Transition: To begin . . . )
Body
I. Main idea 1: This instructor is a natural leader who has proved her dedication to
her students and to this university.
A. This instructor has become a leader in the field of mathematics by writing
numerous books and journal articles, and attending local, regional, and
B. This instructor has been teaching at the University of Oklahoma for more than
fifteen years. As a student who graduated from the university, she carries the
tradition of excellence and passes this tradition on to her students in every
class that she teaches. This individual offers after-hours tutoring, always
(Internal summary/Transition: In addition to being a leader and demonstrating
dedication to her students, this instructor genuinely cares about her students.)
II. Main idea 2: This teacher cares about the learning of OU students.
A. Caring teachers are sometimes hard to find in this day and age, even
though caring just may be the most significant contribution of a teacher.
“Caring is supporting an individual’s interpretation of his or her own
B. This year’s winner exhibits all the major characteristics of a caring
instructor: knowledge and love of self and others, presence, mutual
respect, sensitivity, communication with the other, and organization of the
teaching-learning situation.
me when I say that . . . )
Conclusion
I. Summary: An excellent teacher holds this country’s future in the palm of his or her
II. Review (each main point): Excellent teachers are individuals who demonstrate
leadership, dedication, and caring for both the students and their environment.
III. Tie to the introduction: Once I associated playing with childhood, baseball games,
IV. Creative conclusion thought (end with impact): On behalf of myself, every student
lucky enough to have sat in one of her classes, every future student who awaits this
Sample Outline for Informative Speech 2
Title: The Microbrewing World
Speaker: Kyle Haugsness, University of Oklahoma public speaking student
Introduction
1. Attention-getter: Imagine, if you will, that you are sitting in your favorite chair this
2. Establishment of ethos: The market for beer in this country has grown into a $2-
billion-a-year industry (Johnson, 1996). The increasing population of beer drinkers
3. Preview (each main point): First I would like to give a brief history of beer brewing,
followed by a look at the explosion of the microbrewing industry and how you can
participate.
Body
I. The microbrewing industry has had a unique history that has hurt its growth at
times, but it is now experiencing a surge in popularity.
1. According to an article entitled “A Short History of Brewing in
America” (Johnson, 1996), several of our forefathers took the
liberty of cultivating the hemp plant, and many of them enjoyed a
B. The number of microbreweries steadily declined until the era of
Prohibition. With the repeal of Prohibition, the number of breweries
(Internal summary: In effect, the microbrewing industry has been down a rocky road,
but in recent years it has regained popularity.)
II. Bronikowski (1996) notes that in 1995 the craft of microbrewing grew to a $2-
billion industry that increased 51 percent from the previous year.
income.
B. Not only have sales figures been a testament to the industry’s growth, but
advertising budgets also paint a vivid picture. For example, Pete’s Brewing
(Internal summary: The die-hard beer drinkers of the nation are speaking out and
demanding more microbreweries.)
III. Establishments such as the Bricktown Brewery, the Interurban Grille, and the
Norman Brewing Company are local businesses with a profitable stake in the craft.
A. The lure of these restaurants’ beer often stems from their descriptive and curious
names.
B. Although many microbreweries use various special ingredients, the primary
components of beer are malt, hops, yeast, and water.
