CHAPTER 9
LEARNING, MEMORY,
AND PRODUCT POSITIONING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1: Describe the nature of learning and memory
LO2: Explain the types of memory and memory’s role in learning
LO3: Distinguish the different processes underlying high– and low-involvement learning
LO4: Summarize the factors affecting information retrieval from memory
LO5: Understand the application of learning to brand positioning, equity, and leverage
SUMMARY
LO1: Describe the nature of learning and memory
Learning is any change in the content or organization of long-term memory or behavior and is the
result of information processing. Information processing as a series of activities by which stimuli are
LO2: Explain the types of memory and memory’s role in learning
Memory is the result of learning, which involves information processing. Most commonly,
information goes directly into short-term memory (STM) for processing, where two basic activities
LO3: Distinguish the different processes underlying high- and low-involvement learning
Consumers learn in various ways, which can be broadly classified into high-versus low-involvement
learning. High- involvement learning occurs when an individual is motivated to acquire the
LO4: Summarize the factors affecting information retrieval from memory
Once learned, information is retrieved from long-term memory for use in evaluations and decisions.
Retrieval failures or extinction of a learned response represents a reduction in marketing effectiveness.
LO5: Understand the application of learning to brand positioning, equity, and leverage
Brand image, a market segment or individual consumer’s schematic memory of a brand, is a major
focus of marketing activity. Product positioning is a decision by a marketer to attempt to attain a
defined and differentiated brand image, generally in relation to specific competitors. A brand image
LECTURE TIPS AND AIDS
1) A good way to illustrate semantic memory is to provide a handout to the class such that one-third
of the class receives a piece of paper with a brand name at the top, one-third receives a product
2) A good way to underscore the importance of understanding the learning process for the student is
to describe advertisements as “learning situations encapsulated.” In effect, many ads try to show
the viewer an entire learning process: what the problem is, cues as to how brand purchase can
solve the problem, appropriate reinforcement, and satisfaction evaluation. In other words, how
consumers “learn” to be satisfied by the purchase of a brand.
3) Before class, ascertain the price of several items students would commonly purchase at a nearby
4) The concept of imagery, one of the general characteristics of learning brought out in the chapter,
provides an interesting and useful application of learning to direct marketing practice. Brand
5) Extinction can be illustrated by asking for the names of recent defeated vice presidential
candidates, losers of recent super bowls or World Series, and the name of the author of the
textbook used in the basic marketing class.
6) Assign and/or prepare one or more of the CB PRESS HIGHLIGHTS articles for class discussion.
7) Build a recent news story or commercial into your PowerPoints. The searchable Video and
Commercial Links Database can be found in the Instructor Resources in Connect.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) What is learning?
2) What is memory?
3) Define short-term memory and long-term memory?
4) Discuss the nature of short-term memory in terms of its endurance and capacity.
STM has a limited capacity to store information and sensations and is short lived in nature.
5) What is maintenance rehearsal?
6) What is meant by elaborative activities?
7) What is meant by imagery in working memory?
8) What is semantic memory?
It is the basic knowledge and feelings we have about and object or event.
9) How does a schema differ from a script?
10) What is episodic memory and how does it relate to flashbulb memory?
This is the memory of a sequence of events in which a person participated. These personal
11) Describe low-involvement learning. How does it differ from high-involvement learning?
A low-involvement learning situation is one in which the consumer has little or no motivation to
12) What do we mean by cognitive learning, and how does it differ from the conditioning theory
approach to learning?
Cognitive learning encompasses all the mental activities of humans as they work to solve
13) Distinguish between learning via classical conditioning and learning that occurs via operant
conditioning.
Classical conditioning refers to the process of using an existing relationship between a stimulus
14) What is iconic rote learning? How does it differ from classical conditioning? Operant
conditioning?
15) Define modeling.
Modeling (or vicarious learning) relates to how consumers do not need to experience rewards or
punishments directly to learn. Instead, they can observe the outcomes of others’ behaviors and
16) What is meant by analytical reasoning?
Analytical reasoning is the most complex form of cognitive learning, involving individuals’
17) Describe analogical reasoning.
18) What is meant by stimulus generalization? When do marketers use it?
Often referred to as the “rub-off-effect,” once we have learned a particular response that works for
19) Define stimulus discrimination. Why is it important?
20) Explain extinction and retrieval failure and why marketing managers are interested in them.
Extinction (associated with conditioned learning) and retrieval failure (associated with cognitive
sometimes do want them to forget bad experiences with the brand or store.
21) What factors affect the strength of learning?
Strength of learning is enhanced by six factors: importance, message involvement, mood,
22) How does self-referencing relate to strength of learning and retrieval?
23) What is memory interference and what strategies can marketers use to deal with it?
Memory interference occurs when consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of
24) Why is it useful to match the retrieval and learning environments?
25) What is a brand image? Why is it important?
Brand image refers to the schematic memory of a brand. It contains the target market’s
26) What is product positioning? Repositioning?
Product positioning is a decision by a marketer to try to achieve a defined brand image relative to
27) What is perceptual mapping?
Perceptual mapping offers marketing managers a useful technique for measuring and developing a
28) What is brand equity?
Brand equity is the value consumers assign to a brand above and beyond any specific functional
29) What does leveraging brand equity mean?
Brand leverage refers to marketers capitalizing on brand equity. This can be achieved with family
Discussion Questions
30) How would you determine the best product position for the following:
a) A brand of tablet computer
b) A cell phone targeting children
31) Is low-involvement learning really widespread? Which products are most affected by low-
involvement learning?
Low-involvement learning is probably very widespread, but this is difficult to document. Products
that are heavily advertised, and in which most people have little interest, are most likely to be
32) Almex and Company introduced a new coffee-flavored liqueur in direct competition with Hiram
Walker’s tremendously successful Kahlua brand. Almex named its new entry Kamora and
packaged it in a bottle similar to that of Kahlua, using a pre-Columbian label design. The ad copy
for Kamora reads: “If you like coffee—you’ll love Kamora.” Explain Almex’s marketing strategy
in terms of learning theory.
33) Describe the brand images the following “brands” have among students on your campus.
a) Blackberry Smart Phone
d) Toyota Prius hybrid
34) In what ways, if any, would the brand images you described in response to the previous question
differ with different groups, such as (a) middle-aged professionals, (b) young blue-collar workers,
(c) high school students, and (d) retired couples?
Assign students different brands from Question 33 and specific segments outlined above. Arrange
presentations by brand such that discussion can revolve around how different product positioning
35) What role does dual coding play in the learning process?
36) Respond to the questions in Consumer Insight 9-1.
Q1 – This is a question that most students would answer in the affirmative. It might be interesting
to take a quick poll to determine the most frequent earworms among your students – to see if the
most common earworms are popular songs or advertising jingles.
37) Evaluate the Illustrations 9-1 through 9-5 in light of their apparent objectives and target market.
38) Respond to the questions in Consumer Insight 9-2.
The research suggests that visual art is associated with sophistication, culture, and so on which
then elicit perceptions of luxury and exclusivity. These associations are positive and boost brand
image.