Jandt, An Introduction to Intercultural Communication 9e
SAGE Publications, 2018
Lecture Notes
Chapter 6: Dimensions ofNation-StateCultures
Learning Objectives
6-1: Describe the original Hofstede dimensions.
6-2: Describe the two dimensions Hofstede added later.
6-3: Identify countries considered on the extremes of each of the Hofstede dimensions.
6-4: Describe the communication practices associated with each Hofstede dimension.
6-5: Discuss whether environmental sustainability is a legitimate dimension of culture
independent of the Hofstede dimensions.
6-6: Use the Hofstede dimensions to describe Japanese culture.
I. The Hofstede Dimensions
A. Individualism Versus Collectivism:
1. How people define themselves and their relationships with others
a. In an individualist culture, the interest of the individual prevails over the
interests of the group; ties between individuals are loose; people look after
themselves and their immediate families; what a person does defines that
person; direct communication style.
b. In a collectivist culture, the interest of the group prevails over the interest of
the individual; people are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups that
continue throughout a lifetime to protect in exchange for unquestioning
loyalty; who a person is connected with defines that person; indirect
communication style.
2. Hofstede’s data revealed four associations
a. Wealth: There is a strong relationship between a nation’s wealth and
individualism.
b. Geography: Countries with moderate and cold climates tend to show more
individualism.
c. Birth rates: Countries with higher birth rates tend to be collectivist.
d. History: Confucian countries are collectivist; regions heavily populated
by European migrants (North America, Australia, and New Zealand) are
individualist.
3. Case Study: Singapore
a. Populated by various groups of people
b. Singapore is a multiracial and multicultural society
c. It’s a clean, efficient county with law abiding citizens
B. Masculinity Versus Femininity
1. Hofstede (1980)—Women’s social role varied less from culture to culture than
men’s:
a. He labeled as masculine cultures those that strive for maximal distinction
between what women and men are expected to do; cultures that place high
values on masculine traits stress assertiveness, competition, and material
success.
b. He labeled as feminine cultures those that permit more overlapping social
roles for the sexes; cultures that place high value on feminine traits’ stress
quality of life, interpersonal relationships, and concern for the weak.
2. Hofstede’s data revealed two associations with this dimension:
a. Geography: Feminine cultures are somewhat more likely in colder climates.
b. Birth rates: In feminine cultures, the woman has a stronger say in the number
of children; in masculine cultures, the man determines family size.
C. Power Distance
1. This dimension refers to the way the culture deals with inequalities; the extent to
which less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country
expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.
2. In cultures with high power distance, children are expected to be obedient toward
parents; people are expected to display respect for those of higher status; power
and influence are concentrated in the hands of a few rather than distributed
throughout the population.
3. Two indicators of power distance are income and wealth distributions; taking into
account these indicators, the United States is becoming higher in power distance.
4. Hofstede’s data revealed four associations with this dimension.
a. Geographic latitude: Higher latitudes are associated with lower power
distance.
b. Population: Large populations are associated with high power distance.
c. Wealth: National wealth is associated with low power distance.
d. History: Countries with a Romance language (Spanish, Portuguese, Italian,
French) score medium to high, as do Confucian cultural inheritance countries;
countries with a Germanic language (German, English, Dutch, Danish,
Norwegian, Swedish) score low.
D. Uncertainty Avoidance
1. This dimension refers to the extent to which people in a culture feel threatened by
uncertain or unknown situations.
2. Cultures strong in uncertainty avoidance are active, aggressive, emotional,
compulsive, security seeking, and intolerant.
3. Cultures weak in uncertainty avoidance are contemplative, less aggressive,
unemotional, relaxed, accepting of personal risks, and relatively tolerant.
4. Associations with this dimension
5. Religion: Orthodox, Roman Catholic Christian—high; Judaic, Muslim—medium;
Protestant Christian, Eastern religion—low.
6. History: History of Roman codified laws-high; Confucian tradition—lower.
E. Long-Term Versus Short-Term Orientation
1. Countries high in Confucian work dynamism are Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan,
South Korea, and Singapore, popularly referred to as the Five Economic Dragons.
2. Long-term orientation encourages thrift, savings, perseverance toward results,
and a willingness to subordinate oneself for a purpose.
3. Short-term orientation is consistent with spending to keep up with social
pressure, less savings, preference for quick results, and a concern with face.
F. Indulgence Versus Self-Restraint
1. Indulgence: a tendency to allow relatively free gratification of basic and natural
human desires related to enjoying life and having fun; restraint: a conviction that
such gratification needs to be curbed and regulated by strict social norms.
2. Indulgent cultures: a higher percentage of very happy people, a higher
importance placed on leisure, more extroverted personalities, and lower death
rate from cardiovascular diseases.
3. Restrained cultures: a lower percentage of very happy people, a perception of
helplessness, more neurotic personalities, higher death rates from cardiovascular
diseases.
II. Environmental Sustainability
A. 1987 The World Commission on Environment and Development defined the
concept as “Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (p. 8).
B. Sustainability is a multidimensional construct
1. Environmental SustainabilityIndex (ESI) was published from 1999 to 2005.
2. The US ranks 45th, a high middle ranking of performance on issues such as water
quality and protection of the environment.
C. Husted (2005) studied ESL elements related to Hofstede’s dimensions.
1. Sustainable values p 363.
2. Education is related to ESI (environmental Performance Index).
III. The Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner dimensions
A. AlfonsusTrompenaarsand Charles Hampden-Turner researched the values of 46,000
managers in 40 countries.
B. People from diverse cultures differ from one another in seven dimensions.
1. Universalism versus particularism: rules and laws versus circumstances and
relationships
2. Individualism versus communitarianism: the individual versus the group
3. Specific versus diffuse: separation versus integration of personal and professional
lives
4. Neutral versus emotional: control versus expression of emotions
5. Achievement versus ascription: You are what you do versus you are how others
view you.
6. Sequential time versus synchronous time: planning and staying on schedule
versus flexible schedules
7. Internal direction versus outer direction: belief in controlling the environment
versus belief in the influence of the environment
C. Case Study: Japan as a Homogeneous Culture
1. Hofstede (1983)—Japan is placed in the middle between individualism and
collectivism
a. Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone describes Japan as “Homogenous”
b. This affects communication
2. Geography and History
a. Four large islands with more than 3,000 small islands covering 3,777,915 km2
equal to California
b. Seafood is a staple in Japan
c. Japan imports a large amount of food
d. No energy or natural resources
e. Must export and import to survive
3. Population and Economy
a. Japan’s parliament voted to replace the law that required the Ainu to
assimilate into the culture
b. 127 million equating to 348 people per square mile
c. More than one in four Japanese are over 65 compared to the United States of
15% over 65
d. Little foreign influence until 1853 due to the island isolation
e. Everyone share the same ideas, lacking outside influence
f. Commodore Perry in 1853
i. From feudal country to industrial country
ii. Japan is a major foreign investor
iii. English words in Japan grow at a fast rate
iv. 2013 only 1% of the gross national product is spent on defense
D. Cultural Patterns
1. Homogeny as a cultural myth is an important concept
2. Social order and communication without language
3. Axioms and verbosity, “least said, soonest mended”
4. All schools have curriculum and students wear uniforms
5. Conflict is avoided
6. “Amae” is a reciprocal relationship
7. Japan’s youth hold significantly different cultural values
8. Hofstede’s questionnaires proved that Japanese students scored higher on
individualism and lower on power distance
9. Matsumoto (2002) argues that parent’s in Japan today place less importance on
collectivism values
10. The study showed that national wealth and individualism was related and further
suggested that the Japanese are group oriented, hierarchical, and formal
11. Hofstede’s research must not allow us to form stereotypes