978-1506315133 Chapter 8 Lecture Note

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Lecture Notes

Chapter 8: The Nonverbal Code

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define nonverbal communication

2. Compare and contrast verbal and nonverbal codes

3. Identify and define the eight different channels of nonverbal communication

4. Compare and contrast the eight different channels of nonverbal communication across cultures

5. Recount the fundamental assumptions of the nonverbal expectancy violations theory

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Many linguists, psychologists, and sociologists believe that human language evolved from a system of

nonlinguistic (nonverbal) communication. To these scholars, language and communication are not the

same. Humans possess a whole host of nonlinguistic ways to communicate with each other through the

use of their hands, eye, arms, faces, and personal space. When we combine verbal and nonverbal

language, we create an intricate communication system through which humans come to know and

understand each other.

This chapter is about nonverbal communication and how it varies across cultures. The chapter begins

with some definitions of nonverbal communication and then moves into a discussion of how verbal and

nonverbal codes differ. From there, the chapter outlines the various channels of nonverbal

communication and how cultures differ regarding their use. These channels include kinesics,

paralanguage, proxemics, haptics, olfactics, and physical appearance and dress. The chapter closes with

a discussion of nonverbal expectancy violations theory.

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Definitions of Nonverbal Communication

1. The study of nonverbal communication focuses on the messages people send to each other that

do not contain words. This includes messages sent via body motions, vocal qualities, eyes, the

use of time, space, artifacts, dress, and even smell. Communication with the body, called

kinesics, consists of the use of the hands, arms, legs, and face to send messages. Paralanguage,

or the use of the voice, refers to vocal characteristics such as volume, pitch, rate, etc.

Occulesics, the eyes, tell much about person’s affective state and status. Through paralanguage,

people communicate their emotional state, veracity and sincerity. Most of us can identify when

speakers are confident or nervous through their vocal pitch, rate, and pace. Through haptics, or

touch, people communicate intimacy and power. Through time, called chronemics, people can

communicate status and punctuality. By studying space, or proxemics, we can learn how people

express intimacy and power. Through smell, called olfactics, a person’s ethnicity, social class,

and status are communicated.

2. During intercultural communication, verbal and nonverbal messages are sent simultaneously.

Verbal communication represents the literal content of a message whereas the nonverbal

component communicates the style or “how” the message is to be interpreted. Hence, the

nonverbal code often complements, accents, substitutes, repeats or even contradicts the verbal

message.

II. The Relationship Between Verbal and Nonverbal Codes

1. By comparing and contrasting the human verbal and nonverbal code, many linguists have

concluded that verbal language evolved from its nonlinguistic predecessor. A key distinction

between the two is that the verbal language system is based primarily on symbols, whereas the

nonverbal system is signal based.

2. Another difference between the verbal and nonverbal code is that the nonverbal signal system

is much more restrictive in sending capacity than the verbal code. For example, it is virtually

impossible to communicate about the past or future through nonverbal communication.

III. Formal vs. Informal Code Systems

1. All verbal languages have a formal set of sounds, syntax, and semantics. The degree of formality

of verbal language is not found in the nonverbal code, however. No formalized alphabet exists

for nonverbal codes. Although there are rules governing the use of nonverbal communication, a

formal grammar or syntax does not exist.

IV. Channels of Nonverbal Communication

1. Kinesic behavior or body movement includes gestures, hand and arm movements, leg

movements, facial expressions, eye gaze and blinking, and stance or posture. Although just

about any part of the body can be used for communicating nonverbally, the face, hands, and

arms are the primary kinesic channels through nonverbal messages are sent. Ekman and Friesen

organized kinesic behavior into five broad categories, including emblems, illustrators, affects

displays, regulators, and adapters. The meaning behind most of these kinesic behaviors varies

across cultures.

a. Perhaps more than any other part of the body, the face has the highest nonverbal

sending capacity. Through facial expressions, we can communicate our personality,

open and close channels of communication, complement or qualify other nonverbal

behavior, and, perhaps more than anything, communicate emotional states.

b. Many linguists believe that our verbal language evolved from a system of nonlinguistic

communication that was inherited from our animal past. If this is a valid assumption,

then we should expect that some forms of our nonverbal communication are invariant

across cultures. Current evidence suggests that some facial expressions of emotion,

called affect displays, are universal.

c. There may be distinctive movements of the face for the primary emotions of surprise,

fear, anger, disgust, happiness, and sadness that are probably universal. While people

from divergent cultures may express emotions similarly, what stimulates the emotion

and the intensity with which it is expressed is probably culturally specific.

d. Although studies provide evidence that facial expressions of primary emotions appear to

be universal, other data suggest that cultural influences, such as individualism and

collectivism, play a role in the expression of emotion. Persons from individualistic

cultures express emotions affirming independent self-conceptions, such as self-

actualized, capable, self-satisfied, and proud of oneself. Persons from collectivistic

cultures were less comfortable expressing negative emotions (e.g., indignant, annoyed,

distrustful) than were persons from individualistic cultures.

e. Evidence indicates that own-race facial identifications tend to be more accurate, by as

much as 10% to 15%, than cross-race identifications. Own-race identifications are those

in which we identify someone of the same race as our own. Cross-race identifications

are those in which we identify people from a race different from our own.

2. Occulesics is the study of eye contact. Eye contact is one of the most dynamic forms of

nonverbal behavior and is an essential biological skill necessary for effective social interactions.

Indeed, many researchers believe that basic visual processes, including attraction to the eye

region of the face, are not only innate in humans but in animals as well. In humans (and

probably animals) both adults and infants prefer to look at the eyes of another over other facial

features. Although researchers believe that the basic visual processes are innate, many also

believe that culture influences eye behavior across social contexts. For example, social rules for

direct eye contact and distance during communication vary considerably across cultures and

genders

3. Paralanguage refers to vocal qualities that usually, though not necessarily, accompany speech.

Paralanguage can be divided into two broad categories, including voice qualities, and

vocalizations. Paralinguistic voice qualities include such things as pitch, rhythm, tempo,

articulation, and resonance of the voice. Paralinguistic vocalizations include laughing, crying,

sighing, belching, swallowing, clearing of the throat, snoring, etc. Other paralinguistic

vocalizations include intensity and nonfluencies such as “um,” “ah,” and “uh.” Silence is also

considered within the domain of paralanguage.

4. Proxemics refers to the perception and use of space, including territoriality and personal space.

Territoriality refers to physical geographical space and personal space refers to perceptual or

psychological space; sometimes thought of as the “bubble” of space that humans carry with

them during their day to day activities.

5. Haptics, or tactile communication refers to the use of touch, which may be the most primitive

form of communication. Haptic communication varies widely across cultures, and the amount

and kind of touch varies with the age, sex, situation and relationship of the people involved.

a. Hall distinguishes between contact and noncontact cultures. Contact cultures are those

that tend to encourage touching and engage in touching more frequently than either

moderate or non-contact cultures where touching occurs less frequently and is generally

discouraged.

6. Probably the least understood, yet most fascinating, of all human sensation is olfactics; that is,

our sense of smell. Perceptions of smell vary across cultures.

a. Research has repeatedly shown that women perceive odors differently at various

phases of their menstrual cycles. There appears to be a universal preference for some

kinds of scents that may have biological and evolutionary roots. These preferences are

probably mediated by culture to some extent, however.

b. Smell is also used politically for marking social class distinctions. Smell plays a

significant role in the construction of power relations in many societies.

c. The PROPS (Personal Report of Olfactic Perception and Sensitivity) is designed to assess

one’s level of olfactory perception and sensitivity.

7. Often times we can identify a person’s culture by the person’s physical appearance and dress.

Communication with another is often preceded by visual observations of the other’s physical

appearance. Moreover, in most cultures people consciously manipulate their physical

appearance in order to communicate their identity.

a. In virtually every culture, men and women dress differently, and in many cultures the

differences begin at birth. In the United States, for example, male infants are

traditionally dressed in blue and female infants are dressed in pink. In Masai culture of

Kenya, the distinction between young girls and women is communicated through body

artifacts. Masai women wear specific necklaces and ear rings to designate their marital

status.

8. Chronemic refers to the nonverbal channel of time. Monochronic (M-time) orientations

emphasize schedules, the compartmentalization and segmentation of measurable units of time.

Many M-time cultures are low context, including the United States, Germany, Scandinavia,

Canada, France, and most of Northern Europe. Conversely, polychronic (P-time) orientations see

time as much less tangible and stress multiple activities with little emphasis on scheduling. P–

time cultures stress involvement of people and the completion of tasks as opposed to a strict

adherence to schedules. Many P-time cultures are high context, including Southern Europe,

Latin America, and many African and Middle Eastern countries.

V. Nonverbal Communication and Dimensions of Cultural Variability

1. Persons in individualistic cultures tend to be distant proximally whereas persons in collectivistic

cultures tend to work, play, live, and sleep in close proximity. In addition, body movements tend

to be more synchronized in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures. Facial behaviors

(i.e., affect displays) differ as well. Persons in individualistic cultures tend to smile more than

persons in collectivistic cultures. Collectivistic cultures are more likely to suppress their

emotional displays because maintaining group harmony is primary. Individualistic cultures are

more nonverbally affiliative (i.e., enlisting nonverbal behaviors that bring people closer together

physically and psychologically) than collectivistic cultures.

2. In high power distance cultures, interaction between persons of low and high power may be

very restricted, thus limiting the amount of nonverbal interaction. In large power distance

cultures, people without power are expected to express only positive emotional displays when

interacting with those of higher power (e.g., smile more). Power distance also affects

paralinguistic cues. Persons in small power distance cultures are generally less aware of their

vocalics (e.g., volume, intensity) than persons in large power distance cultures. North Americans

(small power distance) are often perceived as noisy, exaggerated, and childlike. Occulesics, are

also affected by power distance. In large power distance cultures, subordinates are taught to

avert direct eye contact often as a sign of respect for those in superior roles.

3. Persons in high-context cultures tend to pay a great deal of attention nonverbal behavior during

interaction. Thus, facial expressions, touch, distance, and eye contact serve as important cues.

Subtle body movements that may be missed by a low-context person may take on special

meaning to the high-context person.

VI. Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory

1. The basic premise of the theory is that people hold expectancies about the appropriateness of

the nonverbal behaviors of others. These expectations are learned and culturally driven.

Occasionally people violate nonverbal expectations. When this happens the violation produce

arousal, which can be physiological or cognitive and either positive or negative. Once a violation

has been committed and arousal is triggered, the recipient evaluates the violation and the

violator. Violations initiated by highly attractive sources may be evaluated positively while

those initiated by unattractive sources may be negatively evaluated.

a. The very same violation may produce very different evaluations depending on who

committed it. The evaluation of the violation depends on (1) the evaluation of the

communicator (2), implicit messages associated with the violation, and (3) evaluations

of the act itself.

b. Expectancies vary across cultures. Many of the communicative behaviors of high-low

context, individualistic-collectivistic, and high-low contact cultures are different and the

interactants will inevitably violate each others’ expectations regarding appropriate

nonverbal behavior.