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Lecture Notes
Chapter 8: The Nonverbal Code
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define nonverbal communication
2. Compare and contrast verbal and nonverbal codes
3. Identify and define the eight different channels of nonverbal communication
4. Compare and contrast the eight different channels of nonverbal communication across cultures
5. Recount the fundamental assumptions of the nonverbal expectancy violations theory
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Many linguists, psychologists, and sociologists believe that human language evolved from a system of
nonlinguistic (nonverbal) communication. To these scholars, language and communication are not the
same. Humans possess a whole host of nonlinguistic ways to communicate with each other through the
use of their hands, eye, arms, faces, and personal space. When we combine verbal and nonverbal
language, we create an intricate communication system through which humans come to know and
understand each other.
This chapter is about nonverbal communication and how it varies across cultures. The chapter begins
with some definitions of nonverbal communication and then moves into a discussion of how verbal and
nonverbal codes differ. From there, the chapter outlines the various channels of nonverbal
communication and how cultures differ regarding their use. These channels include kinesics,
paralanguage, proxemics, haptics, olfactics, and physical appearance and dress. The chapter closes with
a discussion of nonverbal expectancy violations theory.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Definitions of Nonverbal Communication
1. The study of nonverbal communication focuses on the messages people send to each other that
do not contain words. This includes messages sent via body motions, vocal qualities, eyes, the
use of time, space, artifacts, dress, and even smell. Communication with the body, called
kinesics, consists of the use of the hands, arms, legs, and face to send messages. Paralanguage,
or the use of the voice, refers to vocal characteristics such as volume, pitch, rate, etc.
Occulesics, the eyes, tell much about person’s affective state and status. Through paralanguage,
people communicate their emotional state, veracity and sincerity. Most of us can identify when
speakers are confident or nervous through their vocal pitch, rate, and pace. Through haptics, or
touch, people communicate intimacy and power. Through time, called chronemics, people can
communicate status and punctuality. By studying space, or proxemics, we can learn how people
express intimacy and power. Through smell, called olfactics, a person's ethnicity, social class,
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and status are communicated.
2. During intercultural communication, verbal and nonverbal messages are sent simultaneously.
Verbal communication represents the literal content of a message whereas the nonverbal
component communicates the style or "how" the message is to be interpreted. Hence, the
nonverbal code often complements, accents, substitutes, repeats or even contradicts the verbal
message.
II. The Relationship Between Verbal and Nonverbal Codes
1. By comparing and contrasting the human verbal and nonverbal code, many linguists have
concluded that verbal language evolved from its nonlinguistic predecessor. A key distinction
between the two is that the verbal language system is based primarily on symbols, whereas the
nonverbal system is signal based.
2. Another difference between the verbal and nonverbal code is that the nonverbal signal system
is much more restrictive in sending capacity than the verbal code. For example, it is virtually
impossible to communicate about the past or future through nonverbal communication.
III. Formal vs. Informal Code Systems
1. All verbal languages have a formal set of sounds, syntax, and semantics. The degree of formality
of verbal language is not found in the nonverbal code, however. No formalized alphabet exists
for nonverbal codes. Although there are rules governing the use of nonverbal communication, a
formal grammar or syntax does not exist.
IV. Channels of Nonverbal Communication
1. Kinesic behavior or body movement includes gestures, hand and arm movements, leg
movements, facial expressions, eye gaze and blinking, and stance or posture. Although just
about any part of the body can be used for communicating nonverbally, the face, hands, and
arms are the primary kinesic channels through nonverbal messages are sent. Ekman and Friesen
organized kinesic behavior into five broad categories, including emblems, illustrators, affects
displays, regulators, and adapters. The meaning behind most of these kinesic behaviors varies
across cultures.
a. Perhaps more than any other part of the body, the face has the highest nonverbal
sending capacity. Through facial expressions, we can communicate our personality,
open and close channels of communication, complement or qualify other nonverbal
behavior, and, perhaps more than anything, communicate emotional states.
b. Many linguists believe that our verbal language evolved from a system of nonlinguistic
communication that was inherited from our animal past. If this is a valid assumption,
then we should expect that some forms of our nonverbal communication are invariant
across cultures. Current evidence suggests that some facial expressions of emotion,
called affect displays, are universal.
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c. There may be distinctive movements of the face for the primary emotions of surprise,
fear, anger, disgust, happiness, and sadness that are probably universal. While people
from divergent cultures may express emotions similarly, what stimulates the emotion
and the intensity with which it is expressed is probably culturally specific.
d. Although studies provide evidence that facial expressions of primary emotions appear to
be universal, other data suggest that cultural influences, such as individualism and
collectivism, play a role in the expression of emotion. Persons from individualistic
cultures express emotions affirming independent self-conceptions, such as self-
actualized, capable, self-satisfied, and proud of oneself. Persons from collectivistic
cultures were less comfortable expressing negative emotions (e.g., indignant, annoyed,
distrustful) than were persons from individualistic cultures.
e. Evidence indicates that own-race facial identifications tend to be more accurate, by as
much as 10% to 15%, than cross-race identifications. Own-race identifications are those
in which we identify someone of the same race as our own. Cross-race identifications
are those in which we identify people from a race different from our own.
2. Occulesics is the study of eye contact. Eye contact is one of the most dynamic forms of
nonverbal behavior and is an essential biological skill necessary for effective social interactions.
Indeed, many researchers believe that basic visual processes, including attraction to the eye
region of the face, are not only innate in humans but in animals as well. In humans (and
probably animals) both adults and infants prefer to look at the eyes of another over other facial
features. Although researchers believe that the basic visual processes are innate, many also
believe that culture influences eye behavior across social contexts. For example, social rules for
direct eye contact and distance during communication vary considerably across cultures and
genders
3. Paralanguage refers to vocal qualities that usually, though not necessarily, accompany speech.
Paralanguage can be divided into two broad categories, including voice qualities, and
vocalizations. Paralinguistic voice qualities include such things as pitch, rhythm, tempo,
articulation, and resonance of the voice. Paralinguistic vocalizations include laughing, crying,
sighing, belching, swallowing, clearing of the throat, snoring, etc. Other paralinguistic
vocalizations include intensity and nonfluencies such as "um," "ah," and "uh." Silence is also
considered within the domain of paralanguage.
4. Proxemics refers to the perception and use of space, including territoriality and personal space.
Territoriality refers to physical geographical space and personal space refers to perceptual or
psychological space; sometimes thought of as the "bubble" of space that humans carry with
them during their day to day activities.
5. Haptics, or tactile communication refers to the use of touch, which may be the most primitive
form of communication. Haptic communication varies widely across cultures, and the amount
and kind of touch varies with the age, sex, situation and relationship of the people involved.
a. Hall distinguishes between contact and noncontact cultures. Contact cultures are those
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that tend to encourage touching and engage in touching more frequently than either
moderate or non-contact cultures where touching occurs less frequently and is generally
discouraged.
6. Probably the least understood, yet most fascinating, of all human sensation is olfactics; that is,
our sense of smell. Perceptions of smell vary across cultures.
a. Research has repeatedly shown that women perceive odors differently at various
phases of their menstrual cycles. There appears to be a universal preference for some
kinds of scents that may have biological and evolutionary roots. These preferences are
probably mediated by culture to some extent, however.
b. Smell is also used politically for marking social class distinctions. Smell plays a
significant role in the construction of power relations in many societies.
c. The PROPS (Personal Report of Olfactic Perception and Sensitivity) is designed to assess
one's level of olfactory perception and sensitivity.
7. Often times we can identify a person's culture by the person's physical appearance and dress.
Communication with another is often preceded by visual observations of the other's physical
appearance. Moreover, in most cultures people consciously manipulate their physical
appearance in order to communicate their identity.
a. In virtually every culture, men and women dress differently, and in many cultures the
differences begin at birth. In the United States, for example, male infants are
traditionally dressed in blue and female infants are dressed in pink. In Masai culture of
Kenya, the distinction between young girls and women is communicated through body
artifacts. Masai women wear specific necklaces and ear rings to designate their marital
status.
8. Chronemic refers to the nonverbal channel of time. Monochronic (M-time) orientations
emphasize schedules, the compartmentalization and segmentation of measurable units of time.
Many M-time cultures are low context, including the United States, Germany, Scandinavia,
Canada, France, and most of Northern Europe. Conversely, polychronic (P-time) orientations see
time as much less tangible and stress multiple activities with little emphasis on scheduling. P-
time cultures stress involvement of people and the completion of tasks as opposed to a strict
adherence to schedules. Many P-time cultures are high context, including Southern Europe,
Latin America, and many African and Middle Eastern countries.
V. Nonverbal Communication and Dimensions of Cultural Variability
1. Persons in individualistic cultures tend to be distant proximally whereas persons in collectivistic
cultures tend to work, play, live, and sleep in close proximity. In addition, body movements tend
to be more synchronized in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures. Facial behaviors
(i.e., affect displays) differ as well. Persons in individualistic cultures tend to smile more than
persons in collectivistic cultures. Collectivistic cultures are more likely to suppress their
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emotional displays because maintaining group harmony is primary. Individualistic cultures are
more nonverbally affiliative (i.e., enlisting nonverbal behaviors that bring people closer together
physically and psychologically) than collectivistic cultures.
2. In high power distance cultures, interaction between persons of low and high power may be
very restricted, thus limiting the amount of nonverbal interaction. In large power distance
cultures, people without power are expected to express only positive emotional displays when
interacting with those of higher power (e.g., smile more). Power distance also affects
paralinguistic cues. Persons in small power distance cultures are generally less aware of their
vocalics (e.g., volume, intensity) than persons in large power distance cultures. North Americans
(small power distance) are often perceived as noisy, exaggerated, and childlike. Occulesics, are
also affected by power distance. In large power distance cultures, subordinates are taught to
avert direct eye contact often as a sign of respect for those in superior roles.
3. Persons in high-context cultures tend to pay a great deal of attention nonverbal behavior during
interaction. Thus, facial expressions, touch, distance, and eye contact serve as important cues.
Subtle body movements that may be missed by a low-context person may take on special
meaning to the high-context person.
VI. Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory
1. The basic premise of the theory is that people hold expectancies about the appropriateness of
the nonverbal behaviors of others. These expectations are learned and culturally driven.
Occasionally people violate nonverbal expectations. When this happens the violation produce
arousal, which can be physiological or cognitive and either positive or negative. Once a violation
has been committed and arousal is triggered, the recipient evaluates the violation and the
violator. Violations initiated by highly attractive sources may be evaluated positively while
those initiated by unattractive sources may be negatively evaluated.
a. The very same violation may produce very different evaluations depending on who
committed it. The evaluation of the violation depends on (1) the evaluation of the
communicator (2), implicit messages associated with the violation, and (3) evaluations
of the act itself.
b. Expectancies vary across cultures. Many of the communicative behaviors of high-low
context, individualistic-collectivistic, and high-low contact cultures are different and the
interactants will inevitably violate each others' expectations regarding appropriate
nonverbal behavior.
