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Lecture Notes
Chapter 3: The Microcultural Context
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define and explain the concept of a microculture and the criteria for membership
2. Recount the fundamental assumptions of the muted group theory
3. Provide examples of the various microcultures in the United States
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Within most cultures there are groups of people who differ in some custom, habit, or practice from the
general societal culture. These groups are sometimes called minorities, subcultures, or cocultures. In
this book the term microculture is used to refer to those identifiable groups of people who share the set
of values, beliefs and behaviors of the macro-culture, who possess a common history, and utilize a
verbal and nonverbal symbol system. In some way, however, the microculture varies from the larger,
often dominant cultural milieu. Most microcultural groups are groups of individuals who have much in
common with the larger, macroculture yet are bonded together by similar experiences, traits, values, or
in some cases, histories. Hence the term microculture includes different types of groups that could be
classified by age, class, geographic region, sexual preference, ethnicity, race, size, or even occupation.
Almost by definition, microcultures wield less power than the macro or dominant group. They typically
wield less political, economic, social, and often times less legal and religious power. They also wield less
linguistic power. In this sense, they are considered subordinate groups.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Microcultural Group Status
1. Social scientists generally recognize five characteristics that distinguish micro-cultural groups
from the dominant culture.
a. Physical or cultural traits (e.g., dress habits, race, sex).
b. Involuntary membership (members are born into the group).
c. Endogamy (i.e., marrying within the ingroup).
d. Members are aware of their subordinate status.
e. Unequal treatment from the dominant group (e.g., segregation and discrimination).
II. Muted Microcultural Groups
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1. The experiences and perceptions of subordinate microcultural groups are often different than
those of the dominant cultural group. Microcultural groups often times are not as free or as
capable as the dominant cultural group to communicate as freely as the dominant group.
2. The language of the dominant group may not provide the words and symbols representative of
the microcultural group’s perceptions and experiences. Thus, because such groups are forced to
communicate (e.g., speak, write) within the dominant mode of expression, they become muted.
3. The manifestations of the Muted Group Theory are that microcultural groups’ speech and
writing are not valued by the dominant cultural group. Moreover, microcultural groups
experience difficulty expressing themselves fluently within the dominant mode of expression
and micro-macro interaction is difficult.
4. Microcultural groups may respond to the dominant mode of expression in two ways. Some will
refuse to live by the standards set forth by the dominant group and will try to change the
dominant mode of expression. Another way subordinate groups respond is by using their own
private language. They create symbols that are not understood or used by the dominant group.
They use their own language in order to express their unique experiences (e.g., ebonics,
spanglish)
III. Microcultures in the United States
1. In this chapter, six U.S. microcultures will be explored, with particular attention paid to the
communication of each and how it differs from the dominant macroculture. The first
microcultural group to be examined is the Hispanic/Latino group. The second group consists of
Black Americans. The third microcultural group to be discussed is Asian Americans. Asian
Americans now represent the fastest growing microculture in the United States. The fourth
group to be explored is Native Americans/American Indians. The fifth group is Arab Americans.
The sixth and final microculture to be discussed is the LGBTQ community.
IV. Hispanics/Latinos
1. Hispanics/Latinos are the largest microcultural group in the United States. According to the 2014
U.S. Census, just over 55 million people—about 17% of the U.S. population—are of Hispanic or
Latino origin. In the past 60 years or so, the nation’s Hispanic/Latino population has increased
nearly ninefold—from 6.3 million in 1960 to 55.3 million in 2014—and is projected to grow to
119 million by 2060.
2. The U.S. government distinguishes between race and Hispanic/Latino origin, considering the two
to be separate and distinct. Hence, Hispanic/Latinos are not considered a racial group.
Specifically, the government defines Hispanic or Latino as “a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto
Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race.” In 2014,
64% of the Hispanic/Latino population in the United States is of Mexican origin.
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3. Although diverse, the Hispanic/Latino microculture is united by values, language, and religion.
The family or group needs take precedence over individual needs. Hispanic/Latinos seem
collectivistic across a variety of contexts, including academics. Hispanic/Latinos are thought to
be a very religious microculture, but that appears to be changing. According to a recent Pew
Research Center survey of over 5,000 U.S. Hispanic/Latinos, just over 55% belong to the Roman
Catholic Church, but the survey also reports that the number of Hispanic/Latinos leaving the
Catholic Church is rising significantly. In fact, about 25% of Hispanic/Latino adults now consider
themselves former Catholics. About 22% are Protestant, while just under 20% are religiously
unaffiliated.
4. In their communication modes, Hispanic/Latinos are also group oriented. They are exceptionally
concerned about any behavior that would upset the harmony of their household, church, or
workplace. Hispanic/Latinos value harmony above all else.
5. In the United States, the Hispanic/Latino microculture has been the target of several
unfortunate stereotypes. Perhaps the most common, and the most hotly debated, stereotype
about Hispanic/Latinos revolves around the construct of male gender identity called machismo.
Machismo centers on the notion of masculinity, male superiority, and dominance in the
traditional patriarchal Hispanic/Latino society. Stereotypical characteristics associated with
macho males include aggressiveness, violence, dominance and supremacy over women,
infidelity, and emotional insensitivity.
V. Black-Americans
1. The history of Black Americans in the United States dates as far back as the history of Euro–
Americans (persons of European descent). Black people arrived in the New World with the first
White explorers. In 1619, 20 Africans arrived in Jamestown as indentured servants. At that time,
their children were born free people. By the 1660s, however, the British colonies passed laws
making Africans slaves for life.
2. The proportion of Black people in the United States has varied over the centuries and actually
declined until the 1940s, primarily because White immigration (mostly from Europe) far
outdistanced their population growth. In 1790, Black people represented a little more than 19%
of the total population of the United States. That percentage declined to 9.7% in 1910. In 2010,
the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that there were approximately 46 million Black Americans in
the United States, which is about 14% of the total American population. According to the U.S.
Census Bureau, nearly 60% of all Black people live in just 10 states—New York, Florida, Texas,
Georgia, California, North Carolina, Illinois, Maryland, Virginia, and Ohio. Black Americans are
the second largest microcultural group in the United States
3. The term Ebonics (from the combination of the words ebony and phonics) was first coined in
1973 and refers to a grammatically complex speech pattern used by many Black people. Ebonics,
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or Black language, is uniquely derived from the language of descendents of slaves. Many
linguists recognize that Black language developed as a result of contact between slaves and
Europeans; a new language was formed that was influenced by both languages and took on a
variety of forms, depending on whether the influence was French, Portuguese, or English.
According to Weber, there is evidence that these languages were spoken on the western coast
of Africa as early as the 1500s.
4. In 1987, filmmaker Marlon Riggs produced, directed, and distributed Ethnic Notions, a multi-
award-winning documentary tracing the depiction of Black Americans throughout U.S. history.
The film chronicles the stereotypes that triggered powerful and lasting prejudices against Black
Americans. It graphically shows that throughout U.S. history, in literature, children’s books,
music, cartoons, television shows, advertisements, and films, Black Americans have been
portrayed as Uncle Toms, Sambos, obese Mammies, Coons, savage Brutes, and wide-eyed
Pickaninnies. These dehumanizing stereotypes saturated popular culture for over 200 years.
VI. Asian-Americans
1. Asian Americans are now the fastest growing microcultural group in the United States. In 1965,
Asian Americans accounted for less than 1% of the total U.S. population. Today, Asian Americans
make up nearly 6% of the U.S. population, totaling just over 18 million. Asian Americans are a
diverse microcultural group. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Asian refers to a person
having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian
subcontinent. In 2014, 21% of U.S. Asians were born in the United States, while 79% were
foreign born. In 2014, 62% of U.S. Asians reported that they speak English “very well,” and the
median household income among Asian Americans in 2014 was $74,000, the highest among all
racial groups in the United States, including Whites.
2. Six dominant values held by most Asian Americans, include collectivism, conforming to norms,
emotional self-control, family recognition through achievement, filial piety, and humility.
3. Unlike the negative and often brutal stereotypes of Hispanic/Latino and Black Americans, Asian
Americans are often referred to as the model minority. Research has consistently shown that
Black Americans, Hispanic/Latinos, and Native Americans are seen as less competent than Asian
Americans. Interestingly, Asian Americans also are seen as more competent than Whites;
however, they are also seen as cold, impersonal, unsocial, and unlikable. Hence, Asian
Americans are stereotyped as competent (e.g., ambitious, hard-working, intelligent,
mathematical, obedient, self-disciplined, serious, traditional) but cold (e.g., antisocial, cunning,
deceitful, narrow-minded, nerdy, pushy, selfish, shy). Some researchers contend that being
stereotyped as competent but cold (i.e., unsociable) renders Asian Americans as targets of
prejudice accompanied with envy and anxiety—hence, the tendency to disparage, fear, and
discriminate against them. Ironically, perceptions and stereotypes of Asian Americans trigger
reluctant cooperation and active harm.
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VII. Normative Communication Styles of Black Americans, Asian Americans,
and Hispanics/Latinos
In combination, Black Americans, Asian Americans, and Hispanics/Latinos constitute about 37% of the
U.S. population and are increasing in numbers annually. Below is a summary of the normative
communication styles and values of Black Americans, Asian Americans, and Hispanics/Latinos.
Communication
Style
Very Little
Little
Medium
Much
Very Much
1. Emotional
expression
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
Black American
2. Gestures
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
Black American
3. Vocalics
(vocal pitch
variation)
Hispanic/Latino
Asian American
Black American
4. Vocal
volume
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
Black American
5. Directness
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
Black
American
6. Eye contact
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
Black American
7. Haptics
(touching)
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
Black American
8. Emphasis
on
hierarchy
Black American
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
9. Proximity
(closeness
while
interacting
with
others)
Asian American
Black American
Hispanic/Latino
10. Formality
Hispanic/Latino
Black American
Asian American
11. Self-
promotion
Asian American
Hispanic/Latino
Black American
VIII. Native Americans/American Indians
1. According to the 2010 census, just over 5 million people, or just under 2% of the American
population, identify themselves as Native American or Alaska Native. According to the National
Congress of American Indians (NCAI), there are 562 federally recognized Indian Nations,
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sometimes referred to as tribes, nations, bands, pueblos, or communities. The NCAI points out
that the U.S. Constitution recognizes that Indian Nations are sovereign. In 2010, the largest
tribal groups were Cherokee and Navajo. States with the highest proportion of Native Americans
and Alaska Natives include Alaska, Oklahoma, and New Mexico.
2. Who is a Native American can be confusing. The NCAI points out that individual tribes determine
their own criteria for tribal citizenship. But determining tribal membership is complicated
because the rules for establishing membership may vary considerably from tribe to tribe. Many
tribes use an individual’s pedigree as a means of defining membership. Known as blood
quantum, this method defines one’s tribal membership according to the percentage of pure
blood belonging to that tribe. For example, a person with one grandparent belonging to one
tribe and three grandparents not belonging to that tribe would be considered to have a blood
quantum of one quarter. The minimum amount of blood quantum required for one tribe might
be as little as one thirty-second (equivalent to one great-great-great-grandparent) or as high as
one half (equivalent to one full-blooded tribal parent).
3. Modes of communication vary among tribal affiliations, but core communication styles are
practiced among those who identify as Native American. Ways of speaking specific to Native
Americans include high context and collectivism as well as the use of silence, space, and time.
Among Native Americans, collectivism is a key communicative component. Native Americans
cultivate the idea of identity that “we” is more important than “me” and that maintaining
intergroup harmony and not disrupting the relational orientation with others is paramount.
Silence is another important dimension of Native American communication, which is
characteristic of high-context cultures. The use of proxemics among Native Americans is also
designed to communicate unity and harmony. During conversations, Native Americans will sit or
stand at the same level as others. Positioning the body outward during talk, rather than toward
each other, and sitting or standing side by side is common. Likewise, eye contact is usually
indirect and at a minimum. Spatial arrangements in church or tribal meetings are usually circular
to minimize any power differential, as opposed to “sitting at the head of the table.” Finally, time
is another major dimension of Native American communication. Consistent with a high-context
orientation, the context rules, not the clock or schedules which, by definition, deny context.
Whereas individualists focus on time-over-event. Event-over-time is the practice that the
communicative event—for example, church or tribal meetings—may not have well-defined
starting and ending times, and the members of the group are expected to stay for the full
duration of the meeting.
4. Like other microcultural groups images on packages, in advertisements, on television, in films,
and as sports mascots are very often the only Native Americans/American Indians seen by non–
Native Americans.
IX. Arab Americans
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1. Since the attacks on the World Trade Center towers in New York and the Pentagon in
Washington, DC, increased racial, ethnic, and religious hostility has left Arab Americans in a
precarious state. Arab American groups (such as the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination
Committee) report numerous attacks on people from these various cultural and ethnic groups
since September 11, 2001. Hundreds of people have been beaten, killed, threatened, ridiculed,
and harassed because they were thought to be Arabian and somehow associated with those
who attacked the United States. But of all the microcultural groups discussed in this chapter
thus far, Arab Americans are one of the most ethnically, racially, and religiously diverse groups
in the country. In fact, to classify them into one group is impossible.
2. The U.S. Census Bureau classifies Arabs as White. In 2000, for the first time in its history, the
U.S. Census Bureau officially classified persons in the United States who had Arab ancestry.
According to the Census Bureau, people with ancestries originating from Arabic-speaking
countries or areas of the world were classified as Arab. Nearly 3.6 million Americans trace their
roots to an Arab country. The largest number of recent Arab immigrants to the United Sates in
the past decade are from Iraq, Somalia, and Egypt. Arab Americans are found in every state, but
more than two thirds of them live in just 10 states.
3. The Arab American population is misunderstood. For example, Arab Americans are often
thought to be Muslim. But Arab Americans are as diverse as any other microcultural group in the
United States. The majority of Arab Americans descend from mostly Christian immigrants. In
fact, roughly two thirds of the Arab population identify with one or more Christian sects. But
since the 1950s, Arab Muslims have represented the fastest-growing segment of the Arab
American community.
4. Being aware of Arabic religious phrases in everyday conversation is paramount to understanding
Arab American culture. Inshallah, or “God willing” is perhaps the most common religious
expression used in conversation. The literal meaning of Inshallah communicates a submission to
God—that one does not plan to carry out future events or happenings without God’s will. What
good is a plan if God does not decree it? Inshallah can be used to mitigate future plans or
predictions, to empower speakers, to wish or be hopeful that something will happen, but can be
used to evade or postpone an event. Repetition—that is, to repeat something over and over
again or to be wordy or verbose—is common among Arabs. Arab speakers also tend to use
descriptive adjectives and adverbs.
5. Like the other microcultural groups profiled in this chapter, Arab Americans are subject to
misleading and brutal stereotypes. Arab characters are frequently portrayed as evil terrorists,
causing mayhem and myriad attacks. They are portrayed as the naïve, shallow, or silly character
who pursues lust and extravagance. Then there is the Bedouin Arab, living in a tent with his
camel nearby. Finally, there is the arrogant, neurotic Arab, repressive of women, and incapable
of emotion or romance.
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X. Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgendered, and Queer/Questioning
Microcultural Groups (LGBTQ)
1. Of the six microcultural groups discussed in this chapter, the lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgendered, and queer/questioning (LGBTQ) microcultural group is the most difficult to
define and characterize. Of the five characteristics that define microcultural LGBT groups seem
to meet all of them but not definitively.
2. That the LGBTQ microculture communicates in ways that distinguish it as a unique linguistic
community is misleading because the LGBTQ community is so demographically diverse. Some
argue that gayspeak serves three functions: (1) it is a language that protects against detection of
one’s LGBTQ status, (2) it facilitates the expression of gay and lesbian roles within gay culture,
and (3) it is a vehicle for political identity and activism.