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Lecture Notes
Chapter 1: The Necessity of Intercultural Communication
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Describe why intercultural communication is a necessity
2. Define and discuss the nature of communication
3. Define and discuss the nature of culture
4. Explain the different contexts that make up the contextual model of intercultural communication
5. Summarize the five fundamental assumptions of intercultural communication
6. Identify and discuss the five academic approaches used in determining ethical behavior
7. Describe why intercultural communication competence is a necessity
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Over the past 200 years, the growth rate, distribution, and density of the world population has not been
spread equally. Certain regions of the world have grown disproportionately in terms of the number of
people, while other regions vary considerably in terms of population density (i.e., number of people per
square mile).
The world’s population is growing disproportionately. Along with that, something else has grown
disproportionately—technology and its decentralizing role in information dissemination.
The technological feasibility of the mass media and the Internet to bring events from across the globe
into our homes, businesses, and schools dramatically reduces the distance between people of different
cultures and societies.
The essential effect of this technology is its decentralizing role in disseminating information across local,
regional, national, and international borders. This means that billions of people across the planet now
have access to information that was not available to them only a few years ago. Noted historian and
Pulitzer Prize winner Arthur Schlesinger warns us that history tells an ugly story of what happens when
people of diverse cultural, ethnic, religious, or linguistic backgrounds converge in one place. The
hostility of one group of people against another, different group of people, is among the most instinctive
of human drives. Schlesinger contends that unless a common goal binds diverse people together, tribal
hostilities will drive them apart. By replacing the conflict of political ideologies that dominated in the
twentieth century, ethnic and racial strife will usher in the new millennium as the explosive issue. Only
through intercultural communication can such conflict be managed and reduced. Only by competently
and peacefully interacting with others who are different than ourselves can our global village survive.
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. The Need for Intercultural Communication
A. The Benefits of Intercultural Communication. International tensions are striking examples of the
need for effective and competent intercultural communication. In addition to demonstrating the
need for competent intercultural communication, the initial part of the chapter emphasizes that
while the challenges of an increasingly diverse world are great, the benefits are even greater.
a. Healthier communities
b. Increased international, national, and local commerce,
c. Reduced conflict, and
d. Personal growth through increased tolerance.
B. Diversity in The United States. This part of the chapter demonstrates that the United States is
becoming increasingly diverse. One need not travel to far away countries to experience the
benefits of intercultural communication described above.
a. Largely because of immigration trends, cultural and ethnic diversity in the United States
is a fact of life. Immigrants, in record numbers, are crossing U.S. borders. In 2013 there
were over 41 million immigrants living in the United States, making up 13% of the
nation’s population. This number represents a fourfold increase since 1960. At that
time, just under 10 million immigrants lived in the United States, accounting for about
5% of the population. The number of immigrants living in the United States is projected
to double by 2065. There has been a significant shift in the countries of origin among
the immigrant population. In 1960, 84% of immigrants coming to the United States were
born in Europe or Canada. By 2014, European and Canadian immigrants made up only a
small share of the foreign-born population, while Mexicans accounted for the largest
share, about 28%. Asian immigrants made up 26% of all immigrants, other Latin
Americans stood at 24%, and 8% were born in another region
b. An increasing number of groups are revitalizing their ethnic traditions and promoting
their cultural and ethnic uniqueness through language. Language is a vital part of
maintaining one’s cultural heritage.
c. Although the United States prides itself as a nation of immigrants, there is a growing
sense of uncertainty, fear, and distrust between different cultural, ethnic, and linguistic
groups. These feelings create anxiety which can foster separatism rather than unity.
d. Many Americans are frustrated, confused, and uncertain. Only through intercultural
communication can such uncertainty be reduced. Only when diverse people come
together and interact can they unify rather than separate. Unity is impossible without
communication. Intercultural communication is a necessity.
C. Human Communication. Communication is everywhere. Even when they are alone, people are
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bombarded with communication. Human communication—that is, the ability to symbolize and
use language—separates humans from animals. Communication with others is the essence of
what it means to be human. Communication is the vehicle by which people initiate, maintain,
and terminate their relationships with others.
II. The Nature of Human Communication
A. Process. A process is anything that is on-going, ever-changing, and continuous.
B. Dynamic. The terms “process” and “dynamic” are closely related. Part of what makes
communication a process is its dynamic nature. Something that is dynamic is considered active
and/or forceful.
C. Interactive-Transactive. Communication is interactive and transactive because it occurs between
people. Communication requires the active participation of two people simultaneously sending
and receiving messages.
D. Symbolic. A symbol is an arbitrarily selected and learned stimulus that represents something
else. Symbols can be verbal or nonverbal. Symbols are the vehicle by which the thoughts and
ideas of one person can be communicated to another person.
E. Intentional. Perhaps one of the most debated issues regarding the communication process
centers around intentionality. Intentional communication exists whenever two or more people
consciously engage in interaction with some purpose. Unintentional communication may exist,
however. In this book, the of type communication that will be discussed is intentional
communication.
F. Contextual. Communication is dependent on the context in which it occurs. A context is the
cultural, physical, relational, and perceptual environment in which communication occurs.
G. Ubiquitous. That communication is ubiquitous simply means that communication is everywhere,
done by everyone, all of the time. Humans are constantly bombarded with verbal and
nonverbal messages. Wherever one goes there is some communication happening.
H. Cultural. Culture shapes communication and communication is culture bound. People from
different cultures communicate differently. The verbal and nonverbal symbols we use to
communicate with our friends and families are strongly influenced by our culture.
III. Human Communication Apprehension
A. Many people experience fear and anxiety when communicating with others, particularly in
situations such as public speaking, class presentations, a first date, or during a job interview. The
fear or anxiety people experience when communicating with others is called communication
apprehension (CA).
B. There are four types of CA, including traitlike CA, context-based CA, audience-based CA, and
situational CA.
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a. Traitlike CA is an enduring general personality predisposition where an individual
experiences CA most of the time across most communication situations.
b. Context-based CA is restricted to a certain generalized context, such as public speaking,
group meetings, or job interviews. Persons with context-based CA experienced anxiety
only in certain contexts and not others.
c. Audience-based CA is triggered not by the specific context, but by the specific person or
audience with whom one is communicating. Hence, persons with audience-based CA
experience anxiety when communicating with strangers, or their superiors.
d. Situational-based CA, experienced by virtually everyone, occurs with the combination of
a specific context and a specific audience. For example, students may only feel anxious
interacting with professors when they are alone with the professor in the professor’s
office.
IV. The Nature of Culture
A. In this book, culture is defined as an accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, and behaviors,
shared by an identifiable group of people with a common history and verbal and nonverbal
symbol system.
B. Culture as an Accumulated Pattern of Values, Beliefs and Behaviors. Cultures can be defined by
their value and belief systems and by the actions of their members. People who exist in the
same culture generally share similar values and beliefs. The values of a particular culture
lead to a set of expectations and rules prescribing how people should behave in that culture.
C. Culture as an Identifiable Group of People with a Common History. Because the members of a
particular culture share similar values, beliefs and behaviors, they are identifiable as a
distinct group. In addition to their shared values, beliefs and behaviors, the members of a
particular culture share a common history.
D. Culture as a Verbal and Nonverbal Symbol System. The verbal and nonverbal symbols with
which the members of a culture communicate are culture bound. Although two cultures
may share the same verbal code they may have dramatically different verbal styles.
Nonverbal codes systems vary significantly across cultures also.
E. Microcultural Groups. Within most cultures there are groups of people, or microcultures, that
coexist within the mainstream society. Micro-cultures exist within the broader rules and
guidelines of the dominant cultural milieu but are distinct in some way, perhaps racially,
linguistically, or via their sexual orientation, age, or even occupation.
V. The Study of Intercultural Communication
A. Compared with many other academic disciplines, the study of intercultural communication is
very young. The histories of other academic fields such as math, biology, philosophy, and
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psychology date back hundreds and, in some cases, thousands of years. But the academic
discipline of intercultural communication can be traced back only a few decades, specifically to
the year 1959 and the publication of Edward T. Hall’s book The Silent Language. Edward T. Hall
is generally recognized as the founder of the academic discipline we call intercultural
communication.
B. Among the many significant influences on Hall’s approach to his studies was anthropologist
Franz Boas. The term cultural relativism is often attributed to him. Boas believed, as did Hall,
that humans are necessarily ethnocentric (i.e., believing that one’s native culture is the standard
by which other cultures are observed and judged) and that our observations of other cultures
are necessarily biased in favor of our native cultural background. Moreover, Boaz believed that
any particular culture is an adaptation to and a distinctive product of a unique set of historical,
social, and environmental conditions. As these conditions vary, cultures vary accordingly, and in
this sense, there is no correct culture.
C. One of Hall’s most fascinating insights was how invisible culture is to its own members—that is,
how most people are so unaware of their own cultural ways of living. This new approach also
embraced Boas’s idea of cultural relativism in that cultures should be judged only from within
their specific cultural context and that cultural traditions, beliefs, and behaviors are to be
evaluated on that culture’s unique set of historical, social, and environmental conditions.
VI. A Contextual Model of Intercultural Communication
Intercultural communication occurs whenever a minimum of two persons from different cultures or
micro-cultures come together and exchange verbal and nonverbal symbols. A central theme throughout
this book is that intercultural communication is contextual.
A. Intercultural communication occurs within a variety of contexts, including a cultural, micro–
cultural, environmental, perceptual, and socio-relational context. The general theme of this
Verbal Code
A Contextual Model of Intercultural Communication
Perceptual Context
of Person from
Culture A
Perceptual Context
of Person from
Culture B
Socio-Relational Context
Nonverbal Code
Environmental Context
Micro-Cultural Context
Cultural Context
SAGE Publishing, 2017
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book, as represented in the model, is that intercultural communication is defined by the
interdependence of these various contexts
a. The largest, outer circle of the model represents the cultural context. This is the largest
circle because the dominant culture permeates every aspect of the communicative
exchange, even the physical geography.
b. The next largest circle in the model is the micro-cultural context. These groups are in
some way different than the larger cultural milieu. Sometimes the difference is
ethnicity, race, or language.
c. The next largest circle in the model is the environmental context. This circle represents
the physical geographical location of the interaction. While culture prescribes the
overall rules for communication, the physical location indicates when and where the
specific rules apply.
d. The two circles in the model within the socio-relational context represent the
perceptual contexts of the individuals interacting. The perceptual context refers to the
individual characteristics of the interactants, including their cognitions, attitudes,
dispositions, and motivations.
e. The circle encompassing the perceptual contexts in the model is the socio-relational
context. This refers to the relationship between the interactants. Whenever two
people come together and interact they establish a relationship. In the model, the socio–
relational context is graphically represented by two circles labeled nonverbal and verbal
messages.
f. The nonverbal message circle is larger than the verbal message circle because the
majority of our communicative behavior is nonverbal. Whether we are using words or
not, we are communicating nonverbally through eye contact, bodily stance, and space.
g. The verbal message circle is a series of dashes in the shape of a circle to represent the
digital quality of verbal communication. By digital, we mean that, unlike our nonverbal
communication, our verbal communication is made up of words which have
recognizable and discrete beginning and ending points.
B. Intercultural Communication and Uncertainty. When we interact with someone from a different
culture we are faced with a lot of uncertainty. Uncertainty about the other person may make us
feel nervous and anxious.
a. Some types of communication situations may be more or less anxiety producing than
others. Initial interaction with someone, or interacting with someone from a different
culture may produce heightened anxiety. If we are too anxious about interacting with
strangers, we tend to avoid them. This type of communication anxiety can be labeled
intercultural communication apprehension; that is, the fear or anxiety associated with
either real or anticipated interaction with people from different groups, especially
different cultural or ethnic groups.
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C. Intercultural Communication Apprehension. Successfully interacting with someone from a
different culture requires a degree of communication competence. Most models of
communication competence include a cognitive, affective, and behavioral component.
a. The cognitive component refers to how much one knows about communication.
b. The affective component includes one‘s motivation to approach or avoid
communication.
c. The behavioral component refers to the skills one has to interact competently.
VII: Fundamental Assumptions About Intercultural Communication
A. Assumption #1: During initial intercultural communication, the message sent is usually not the
message received.
a. Whenever people from different cultures come together and exchange messages they
bring with them a whole host of thoughts, values, emotions, and behaviors that were
planted and cultivated by culture. This process of encoding, decoding and interpreting is
filled with cultural noise. To this extent, all intercultural exchanges are necessarily, to a
greater or lessor extent, charged with ethnocentrism.
B. Assumption #2: Intercultural communication is primarily a nonverbal act between people.
a. Some researchers have suggested that as much as 90 percent of all communication is
nonverbal. Cultural values, the expression of intimacy, power, and status and among
communicators is typically accomplished nonverbally through paralinguistic cues,
proxemics, haptics, oculesics, and olfactics.
C. Assumption #3: Intercultural communication necessarily involves a clash of communicator style.
a. In the United States we value, and employ, a very direct and personal style of verbal
communication. Personal pronouns are an essential ingredient to the composition of
just about any utterance. Many cultures, however, prefer an indirect and impersonal
communication style. In these cultures, there is no need to articulate every message.
True understanding is implicit, coming not from words but from actions in the
environment where speakers provide only hints or insinuations.
D. Assumption #4: Intercultural Communication is a Group Phenomena Experienced by Individuals.
a. Whenever we interact with a person from a different culture we carry with us
assumptions and impressions of that other person. The specific verbal and nonverbal
messages that we exchange are usually tailored for the person based on those
assumptions and impressions. Often times such assumptions and impressions are based
on characteristics of the other person by virtue of his/her membership in groups such as
his/her culture, race, sex, age, and occupation group. In other words, we have a
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tendency to see others, not as individuals with unique thoughts, ideas, and goals, but
rather as an “Asian,” or a “woman,” or an “old person,” or “a cab driver.” In other
words, we do not see the person, we see the groups to which the person belongs.
E. Assumption #5: Intercultural Communication is a Cycle of Stress and Adaptation.
a. When we come together with a person from a different culture, we may feel uncertain,
apprehensive, and anxious. Such feelings are stressful. We can learn and adapt to such
stress and eventually grow. During intercultural communication we have to be mindful
that the communication strategies we use with persons with whom we are familiar may
not be effective with persons from other cultures. Thus, we have to learn to adapt and
adjust our communication style.
VIII: The Ethics of Intercultural Communication
1. Ethics involve judgments about what is right and wrong in the course of human conduct.
Ethics set a standard by which judgments of right and wrong are decided. Although some
scholars distinguish between ethics and morals, we will treat the two terms
interchangeably. Ethics become salient (i.e., particularly relevant) whenever human
behavior and decision making are conscious, voluntary, and impact others.
2. A central question about intercultural ethics is whether the same ethical principles apply to
all cultures, a concept sometimes referred to as meta-ethics, or whether unique ethical
standards apply to each culture individually, sometimes referred to as cultural relativism.
There is no easy answer to this question. If we argue from a culturally relativistic
perspective, then we must be willing to tolerate behaviors that many of us would find
abhorrent.
3. Historically, scholars from across a variety of academic fields have recognized five
approaches to determining which behaviors are ethical: the utilitarian approach, the rights
approach, the social justice and fairness approach, the common good approach, and the
virtues approach.
a. The utilitarian approach, sometimes called utilitarianism, posits that ethical actions
are those that provide the greatest balance of good over evil.
b. The rights approach focuses on an individual’s right to choose for her/himself.
c. The fairness or social justice approach is based on the Aristotelian dictum that
“equals should be treated equally and unequals unequally.”
d. The common good approach is based on the idea that community life is, in and of
itself, good and that people within the community and their subsequent actions
should contribute to the community good.
e. The virtues approach asserts the idea that that there are certain ideals, principles, or
standards (i.e., virtues) toward which every individual should strive in order to reach
his or her highest potential.
IX. The Goal: Intercultural Communication Competence
A. When you communicate with someone from a different culture, to be interculturally
competent you will have to adjust and modify the kinds of verbal and nonverbal messages
you send. This process requires that you have some knowledge about the person’s culture
with whom you are communicating, that you are motivated to communicate with him or
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her, and that you have the appropriate verbal and nonverbal skills to encode and decode
messages.
B. In related research, Arasaratnam and Marya Doerfel discovered that those who were
identified as competent intercultural communicators possessed five qualities in common: (a)
empathy, (b) intercultural experience/training, (c) approach tendencies, (d) a global
attitude, and (e) listening skills. Arasaratnam and Doerfel arrived at these five characteristics
via interviews with persons from 15 different countries who were asked to describe a
competent intercultural communicator.