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11
Organizing the Body of the Speech
<A> OBJECTIVES
To understand the value of organization in a speech.
To recognize the parts of a speech.
To create main points that express your major claims.
To use supporting points to substantiate or prove your main point.
To pay attention to coordination and subordination.
To create speech points that are unified, coherent, and balanced.
To create speech points that are unified, coherent, and balanced.
To use transitions to signal movement from one point to another.
To use internal previews and summaries as transitions.
<A> CHAPTER CONTENT OUTLINE
I. Organizing the body of the speech
A. Speakers whose speeches are well-organized appear more understandable,
believable, and trustworthy than those who present poorly organized speeches.
B. Organizing the speech, a stage also called the canon of arrangement, is the
strategic process of deciding how to order speech points into a coherent and
convincing pattern for your topic and audience.
C. In an outline, you determine how to order your ideas and evidence into larger and
smaller logical categories, or divisions and subdivisions.
II. Beyond the speech: Organizing as a life skill
A. Skill in arranging and outlining information can have far-reaching positive effects
in your academic and professional life.
B. Employers seek employees who can communicate ideas logically and
convincingly, and most professional-level jobs require you to prepare well-
organized oral reports.
III. Basic structure of a speech
A. A well-crafted speech contains three main parts: introduction, body, and
conclusion.
1. The introduction establishes the purpose of the speech and shows its
relevance to the audience. It serves as a preview of things to come.
2. The body presents the main points intended to fulfill the speech purpose.
3. The conclusion ties together the main points and the speech purpose. The
conclusion brings closure to the speech by restating the purpose and
reiterating why it is important.
B. You should use main points to express key ideas.
1. Main points express the key ideas and major themes of the speech.
2. The function of main points is to represent each of the main elements or
claims being made in support of the speech thesis.
3. The first step in creating main points is to identify the central ideas and
themes of the speech.
C. You can also use the specific speech purpose and thesis statement as guideposts to
help generate main points. Main points should flow from these two statements.
1. Two to five main points are sufficient for almost any speaking occasion,
even though research has shown that audiences can process between two
and seven.
2. Listeners remember more of the main points made at the beginning of a
speech, a phenomenon termed the primacy effect, and at the end of a
speech, a phenomenon termed the recency effect, than most points made in
between. If you have too many main points, consider whether your topic is
narrow enough.
D. In terms of form, main points should never introduce more than one idea or topic.
All of the main points should be presented in parallel form, or in a similar
grammatical form and style.
IV. Using supporting points to substantiate your claims
A. Supporting points represent the supporting material evidence you have gathered to
explain or justify the main points.
1. In an outline, supporting points appear in a subordinate position to main
points and are indicated by an indentation.
2. Supporting points should be arranged in order of their importance or
relevance to the main point.
B. The most common format is the roman numeral outline; it uses indentation
among main and supporting points to clearly indicate the direction of a speech,
helping the speaker to recollect points and making it easier to follow an outline as
he or she speaks.
V. Paying close attention to coordination and subordination
A. Outlines are based on the principles of coordination and subordination, which
refers to the logical placement of ideas relative to their importance to one another.
B. Ideas that are coordinate are given equal weight and are indicated by parallel
alignment.
C. Ideas that are subordinate to another are given less weight and are indicated by
their indentation below more important points.
D. Always review your outline, and evaluate whether any main points are more
appropriate as subpoints of other main points.
VI. Striving for a unified, coherent, and balanced outline
A. Well-organized speeches are characterized by unity, coherence, and balance.
1. A speech contains unity when it contains only those points that are implied
by the purpose and thesis statements.
2. A coherent speech is one that is logically organized. You can ensure
coherence by adhering to the principle of subordination and coordination.
3. The principle of balance suggests that appropriate emphasis or weight be
given to each part of the speech relative to the other parts and to the thesis.
VII. Using transitions to give direction to the speech
A. Transitions, also called connectives, are words, phrases, or sentences that tie the
speech ideas together and enable the speaker to move smoothly from one point to
the next.
B. Transitions should be used between speech points.
1. Full-sentence transitions are most effective to move from one main point
to another.
2. Transitions can also be stated as rhetorical questions to make the audience
think.
3. Transitions should also be used between supporting points, in the form of
single words, phrases, or full sentences.
C. Speakers can use previews and summaries as transitions.
1. Preview statements briefly describe the main points and thesis of the
speech.
2. Within the body of a speech, internal previews can be used.
3. Internal summaries draw together ideas before proceeding to another
speech point.
<A> KEY
TERMS
canon of arrangement the process of devising a logical and convincing structure for a message.
outline A document in which main and supporting points—the major speech claims and the
evidence to support them—are separated into larger and smaller divisions and subdivisions. See
also outlining and Roman numeral outline.
introduction (of speech) The first part of a speech, in which the speaker establishes
the speech purpose and its relevance to the audience and previews the
topic and the main points.
body (of speech) the part of the speech in which the speaker develops the main points
intended to fulfill the speech purpose.
conclusion (of speech) the part of the speech in which the speaker reiterates the speech
theme, summarizes main points, and leaves the audience with something to think about or act
upon.
main points statements that express the key ideas and major themes of a speech.
Their
function is to make claims in support of the thesis. See also subordinate points.
primacy effect psychological principle in which listeners have
a better recall
of the main points made
at the beginning of a speech than of those made later (unless the ideas
made later are
far more striking than the others).
recency effect psychological principle in which listeners have a better recall
of the most recent points in the speech (unless the
ideas made earlier are
far more striking than
the others).
supporting points information (examples, narratives, testimony, and facts and statistics)
that clarifies, elaborates, and verifies the speaker’s assertions.
indentation
in an outline, the plotting of speech points to indicate their weight relative to
one another; subordinate
points are placed underneath and to the right of higher-order points.
roman numeral outline
a form of outline in which main points are enumerated with
uppercase roman numerals (I, II, III, . . . ), supporting points are
enumerated with capital letters
(A, B, C, . . . ), third-level points with are enumerated with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, . . . ), and
fourth-level points with lowercase letters (a, b, c, . . . ).
coordination and subordination
the logical placement of ideas relative to their
importance to one another. Ideas that are coordinate
are
given equal weight.
An idea that is subordinate to another is given relatively less weight.
coordinate points Ideas that are
given the same weight in an outline and are aligned with one
another; thus, Main Point
II is coordinate
with Main Point
I.
subordinate points indicated by their indentation below the more important points, and given
relatively less weight.
transitions (connectives) words, phrases, or sentences that tie speech ideas together and
enable a speaker to move smoothly
from one point to the next.
rhetorical question
a question that does not invite an actual response but is used to
make the audience think.
preview statement statement included in the introduction of a speech in which the
speaker alerts the
audience to the main speech points.
internal preview
an extended transition used within the body of a speech that alerts
audience members to ensuing speech content.
internal summary an extended transition that draws together important ideas before
proceeding to another speech point.
CHAPTER STUDY GUIDE
I. SUMMARY QUESTIONS
What are the three general parts that make up speech structure, and what are their functions?
What is the function of main points? How are they generated?
Main points express the key ideas and major themes of a speech. Their function is to represent
What should speakers keep in mind when forming main points?
How can the specific purpose and thesis statements help generate main points?
Because the specific purpose statement expresses what you want the audience to learn or do as
What is the function of supporting points?
Supporting points represent the supporting material or evidence you have collected to explain
What is the principle of coordination and subordination?
The principle of coordination and subordination refers to the logical placement of ideas
How do the principles of unity, coherence, and balance apply to the organization of a
speech?
A well-organized speech is characterized by unity, coherence, and balance. A speech exhibits
What are transitions, and how are they used in speeches?
Transitions are words, phrases, or sentences that tie the speech ideas together and enable the
II. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Have you ever listened to and/or viewed a speech that was not organized well? If so, how
did you respond to the speaker and his or her speech material?
Why is it important that speeches be organized in a coherent and meaningful way?
The audience’s understanding of the speech is directly linked to how well it is organized and
Why is it important that transition statements be used in the body of speeches?
III. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES
QUESTIONS
The following questions may help you illustrate important points in the chapter and facilitate
students’ learning of this material. These questions can be used as:
homework questions
quizzes
in-class work (individually or in groups)
topics to generate discussion
question-and-answer sessions between instructor and students
What
are the three general parts of a speech?
What are main points? What can you use to develop main points? How many main points
should you use? What grammatical form should they be in?
It is not enough for speakers to simply state the main points. What other two items need to
be present in the body of the speech?
What are the principles of coordination and subordination? How are coordinate and
subordinate points indicated on an outline?
Coordination and subordination refer to the logical placement of ideas relative to their
What are the three principles of organizing main and supporting points? Give an example
of a speech or speeches that do not follow these principles.
Unity is a
characteristic of a speech that contains only those points that are implied by the
What are transitions? Give two forms of transitions.
ACTIVITIES
Be Supportive: Subpoints
Purpose: To provide students with an opportunity to implement supporting materials, including
examples, narratives, testimony, facts, and statistics.
Instructions: Either provide students with a list of five to ten topics, or have them choose their
own. Provide students with information about the rule of three, and then ask them to generate a
list of three points for each of the topics (and the subpoints for each). Have students specifically
identify which supporting materials (examples, narrative, testimony, facts, and statistics) would
be best for each of the main topics. You can also ask them where they might find each of the
suggested supporting materials. This activity can be done in class individually, with partners, or
as a homework assignment.
Critiquing a Speech
Purpose: To allow students the opportunity to evaluate the organization of a well-known speech.
Instructions: Prior to class, locate several manuscripts and/or videos of famous or historically
significant speeches. Try to use speeches that will be somewhat familiar to your students. After
asking students to read and/or view the speech, have them work in groups to evaluate the
organization and structure of the speech. You can ask them to write a critique, complete a speech
evaluation rubric, or simply discuss their feedback with the class. Make sure to require students
to be specific in their evaluations and provide tangible examples of chapter material.
Once Upon a Time . . . Transitions
Purpose: To become familiar with transitions when writing a speech outline and orally
presenting a speech.
Instructions: Write transition words on the board, or put them on presentation software or a
handout. Following is a list of some transitions that you can use. Ask one student to volunteer to
go first. Either give this student the starting line of a story, or have him or her make one up (e.g.,
“Once upon a time there was a princess and a frog”; “I was walking along a beach when I found
a bottle, rubbed it, and a genie appeared”; “A long time ago, there were three children who just
got new shoes, and their first trip with those shoes was to . . . ”). Direct students to continue the
story for two or three lines; then ask them to use a transitional word from the list and pass the
story on to another student. The next student then picks up the story (after the transition) and
continues for two or three lines; he or she uses another transitional word or phrase and passes the
story to another classmate. This can continue for as long as the instructor desires.
Transitional Words:
To add to a point: in addition, moreover, furthermore, besides, not only . . . but also,
accordingly, equally important, another, as well as, similarly, likewise
Summarizing: therefore, finally, in short, as stated, thus, in brief, in conclusion, as a
result, as shown, as said, to sum up, in other words
Results: as a result, thus, because, since, hence, accordingly, therefore, consequently
Emphasizing: surely, certainly, to be sure, undoubtedly, indeed, truly, in fact, above all,
by all means, of course, overwhelmingly, without question, as a matter of fact,
significantly
Examples: for example, for instance, as proof, specifically, as an illustration, in particular
Contrasting ideas: but, however, on the contrary, notwithstanding, though/although, on
the other hand, otherwise, while this may be true, still/yet, nevertheless, after all, even
though, unlike, in contrast, conversely, rather/instead
Comparing ideas: in the same way, similarly, likewise, in comparison, have in common,
in relation to, also/too, either . . . or, despite, furthermore, as well as, the same, equally
important, at the same time, just as, in like manner, granted, both/and
Conclusion:
in short, in conclusion, in summary, in closing, as a result
Occurring in time: first, second, then, next, last, meanwhile, shortly, immediately, earlier
Writing a Specific Speech Purpose and Main Points
Purpose: To give students practice at composing a specific speech purpose and main points for a
specific speech topic.
Instructions: Assume that you have been asked to deliver a speech to incoming freshmen on the
topic of social life at your college. Write a specific speech purpose for this speech and then write
three main points that flow logically from this specific purpose.
Before students write their specific speech purposes, it may be helpful for the entire class to
brainstorm several aspects of college life, and to review the discussion of specific speech
purposes. Then ask students to pick three of these aspects to use as the main points of a speech.
The three aspects should reflect what each student thinks is important and also what a first-year
audience may want to hear. During this activity, it might be important to establish some ground
rules about what constitutes inappropriate speech content. This activity is also a good exercise in
audience analysis.
Fortune Cookie
Fiction
Purpose: To teach students to consider what type of supporting material is appropriate for a
given topic.
Instructions: Each student should receive a fortune cookie. Write three main points for a speech
on the topic of the fortune found in the cookie. Then develop fictitious evidence for supporting
points to back up each main point.
Students may be creative in their responses to this assignment. The three main points should be
relevant to the topic from the fortune cookie, but the supporting evidence does not have to be
real. Encourage students to think about possibilities for supporting evidence. Where might they
look to find the evidence for their supporting points?
Writing Full-Sentence
Transitions
Purpose: To give students experience writing full-sentence transitions.
Instructions: Pretend that you are going to give a speech about your three most vivid childhood
memories. After formulating three main points, write three full-sentence transitions: one that
moves smoothly from the first main point to the second, another that shifts between the second
and third main point, and a final transition that moves between the third main point and
conclusion.
Students often find constructing effective transitions difficult; this activity allows students the
opportunity to practice this crucial aspect of speech organization while using familiar material.
You may want to emphasize that transition statements should enable a speaker to move smoothly
from point to point.
IV. GROUP ACTIVITIES
Reverse Outlining
Purpose: To challenge students to find the parts of an outline in a delivered speech.
Instructions: Together with four or five of your classmates, locate and view a speech on
television or online. Working individually, try to outline the speech, beginning with elements of
the introduction. Note the main points, supporting ideas, and transitions used by the speaker.
Compare your findings with those of your classmates. What similarities and differences are
evident in your observations?
This activity can be used as an in-class writing assignment. Some speeches are organized well
enough to lend themselves to an outline. This type of speech can be used as an assignment to
assess how well students recognize the basic organizational structure of a speech. Have students
write down how the speaker used transitions to get from one main point to the next. You might
also consider showing a speech video in class so that you can give immediate feedback to correct
any misunderstandings about effective speech organization.
Building the Skeleton of a Speech
Purpose: To give students experience selecting a topic and writing a specific speech purpose,
thesis statement, and main points.
Instructions: In a group of four to five students, select a speech topic that relates to all of the
members in your group. Next, write a specific speech purpose, a thesis statement, and three main
points for this speech topic. Remember that your main points should flow logically from your
purpose and thesis statement. Finally, write full-sentence transitions that could be used between
your three main points.
This assignment is helpful because it allows students the opportunity to work together, which
often results in peer instruction and feedback. You might also consider asking students to create
a brief outline for this assignment, using the principles of coordination and subordination.
Creating a Blended Speech
Purpose: To challenge students to connect topics by using creative transitions.
Instructions: Have each student write down a speech topic of his or her choice. Then have
students form groups of four or five, and ask them to blend their topics into one speech through
the use of creative transitions. Have each group of students make a list of the original speech
topics and the transitions they create to get from one topic to the next.
When every group has finished, ask students to present their “blended speech” to the class. How
difficult was it to create transitions from one topic to the next? How might this be easier when
writing transitions for the main points of a speech on one topic? Remind students that
experiencing difficulty in creating transitions can be a sign of logical flaws in speech content.
Some transitions students may want to use include:
previously, following, as soon as, seldom/usually, before/after, meanwhile, occasionally,
subsequently, never/always
