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86
consider lawmakers who say that wives and daughters must be protected in the
bathroom.
References
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New
York: Routledge.
Williams, P. (1991). The alchemy of race and rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this book.
Chapter 4: The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender: Competing
Images of Men
I.
Profeminist Men’s Groups
A.
Also called progressive men or male feminists, these groups began in the
1960s as men faced the sexism present in the New Left groups. They
generally associate with liberal feminism (that men and women are
basically alike and should be treated equally).
B.
Because they believe in the equality of the sexes, male feminists support
women’s battles for equitable treatment. Their two main goals are: (1)
Working to increase women’s rights and (2) supporting men’s development
beyond existing social prescriptions for masculinity.
C.
Today, most male feminists support ending men’s violence, rights for
LGBTQ people, men’s greater involvement with family, and working for
social justice.
D.
One strategy used by profeminist men is performing a traitorous identity,
which is when a man who is a member of a group challenges particular
attitudes or actions that may be common and accepted among members of
that group.
E.
One example of this would be pointing out the sexism and misogyny
apparent in a joke told by a friend.
F.
Male feminists are also interested in challenging society’s prescriptions for
masculinity by developing emotional capacities that society discourages in
men.
G.
NOMAS
1.
NOMAS is a male feminist organization that sponsors workshops to increase
men’s awareness of options for emotional expression, ending men’s
violence, developing profeminist studies, and supporting education against
homophobia.
2.
They value some traditional masculine qualities like courage and ambition
and condemn conventional ones like aggression and violence.
3.
At the NOMAS conference, four issues arise as priorities:
a.
Recognizing and resisting masculine power and privilege
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b.
Ending violence against women
c.
Ending homophobia and associated violence
d.
Developing men’s studies at universities and colleges
4.
Consciousness-raising groups encourage men to talk about their
feelings and ways to change attitudes and behaviors they find
unworthy in themselves
H.
ACT UP: The AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power
1.
ACT UP was a grassroots movement that advocated for people living with
HIV and AIDS. It fought for medical treatment and changes in social
attitudes toward those impacted by HIV/AIDS.
2.
Recalling tactics of civil rights movements and radical feminists, ACT UP
groups were intentionally leaderless and democratic.
3.
Although largely led by white, middle-class men who worked primarily to
challenge discrimination against men, women were also involved.
4.
Drew inspiration from the women’s health movement and created
underground networks of self-educated health care providers.
I.
Men’s Antiviolence Groups
1.
These groups reason violence against women is men’s issues since most
violence against women is enacted by men.
J.
The White Ribbon Campaign
1.
The White Ribbon Campaign (WRC) is an international organization of
men committed to ending violence against women and is the largest men’s
antiviolence group in the world.
a.
Members wear white ribbons as a symbol of their opposition to
violence against women.
b.
WRC members present antiviolence workshops in schools,
communities, and places of employment encouraging men to speak out
against violence.
c.
These workshops not only focus on physical violence but also
emotional violence, sexual harassment, sexist humor, and other
practices that devalue and harm women.
2.
Walk a Mile in Her Shoes
a.
Walk a Mile in Her Shoes relies on community awareness and
fundraising to end men’s violence against women.
b.
Each year, men in this group participate in a one-mile march wearing
high heels to cultivate men’s compassion for women’s experiences,
generate community awareness, and raise money for local violence
prevention programs.
c.
One criticism of both WRC and Walk a Mile in Her Shoes is that they
don’t go far enough in their analysis of men’s violence. The problem is
not violent men but that violence is intimately woven into how society
defines men and masculinity.
3.
Mentors in Violence Prevention
a.
Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) aims to educate men about
socialization that links masculinity to violence and to reject violence
in themselves and other men.
88
b.
Men are influenced by other men, so the MVP program instills
antiviolence attitudes in men who then teach male peers not to be
violent. The program has two foci: The first is to teach men that
aggression and violence are closely linked to cultural views of
masculinity, and the second is to call attention to the role of bystanders
in preventing violence.
c.
MVP rejects the idea that only those who commit violence are
blameworthy. In many cases, for violence to be committed, there are
bystanders who approve, encourage, condone, or remain silent.
II.
Masculinist Men’s Movements
A.
A number of men’s groups embrace cultural ideology (men and women are
fundamentally different and should have different roles and rights). These groups
are called masculinist and assert men suffer from discrimination and need to
reclaim their rightful status as men. They also tend to ignore or denounce gay men.
B.
Men’s Rights
1.
Among the most conservative men’s groups are men’s rights activists,
whose goal is to restore the traditional roles of men and women and the
privileges men have historically enjoyed.
2.
One of the more extreme men’s rights groups is Free Men, who aim to
restore men’s pride in being “real men.” For them, the primary burden of
masculinity is the provider role. They want to regain their rightful place as
heads of families but that status should not be tied to the breadwinner role.
3.
Men’s rights groups think that discrimination against men is a greater
problem than discrimination against women. They point to the military
draft, shorter lifespans, more health problems, and child custody laws.
C.
Father’s Rights Groups
1.
Father’s rights groups claim that courts discriminate against men by
assuming that women should be the primary parents.
2.
The highest profile father’s rights group is Fathers 4 Justice, which works
to initiate public dialogue around father’s rights. They sometimes perform
dramatic stunts to generate publicity.
3.
There are dozens of groups fighting for fathers’ rights in the United States.
They file class action suits in the United States arguing that fathers have a
constitutional right to be a parent and are thus guaranteed at least 50%
shared custody.
4.
Some social issues that complicate custody issues are fathers who are not
legally required child-support payments and fathers who don’t contact
children after a divorce.
D.
Mythopoetic Men
1.
The mythopoetic movement aimed to foster men’s personal growth by
rediscovering the deep, mythic roots of masculine thinking and feeling to
restore spiritual, emotional, and intellectual wholeness.
2.
Ideal manhood existed prior to and during the Middle Ages, when men were
self-confident, strong, and emotionally alive and sensitive.
3.
Central to the movement is father hunger, a grief born of yearning to be
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close to their own fathers and other men.
4.
The movement has received praise for identifying and highlighting the
anguish men may feel because of distant relationships but has been
criticized for being unwilling to confront issues of gender inequality.
5.
Although popular during 1980s through the 1990s, this movement has
largely been declining, with only a few active groups and few new members.
E.
Promise Keepers
1.
Founded by Bill McCartney and Dave Wardell, Promise Keepers are based
on evangelical Christianity and preach that men should become leaders of
their families because it reflects God’s view of the proper relationship
between husbands and wives.
2.
Men make promises to be good husbands, father, and members of
communities. This is to build strong families and communities.
3.
Women are prohibited from attending Promise Keepers’ meetings, reflecting
the belief that men should lean on each other and not women. They have
also been charged with elitism—a great majority white and middle- and
upper-class.
4.
In response, the movement has attempted to recruit a more racially diverse
membership and has elected an African-American president. They also have
softened their rhetoric about husbands leading wives.
5.
Promise Keepers assert homosexuality is a sin and offer advice on how to
challenge LGBTQ-positive branches of Christianity.
F.
The Million More Movement
1.
In 1995, Minister Louis Farrakhan and the Reverend Benjamin Chavis, Jr.
organized the first Million Man March to bring black men together to
pledge themselves to spiritual transformation and political action.
2.
Faced criticism for encouraging black men to focus on the race of those who
suffer rather than rage against inequity no matter who is the victim. Also
criticized for being anti-feminist and antigay.
3.
The Millions More Movement learned from the criticisms of Millions
marches. It was defined as an ongoing movement rather than an annual
event and includes all sexes, races, and sexualities.
4.
An event called Justice or Else Rally saw Louis Farrakhan passing the torch
to the new generation, which has been galvanized by #BlackLivesMatter
and noted for its radical intersectionality. This demonstrates the fluidity of
activism surrounding race, gender, and sexual orientation.
III.
Contemporary Men’s Movements
A.
The recession in 2008 hit sectors in manufacturing and construction the
hardest. The economic downturn is one of three recent and large social
changes that have fueled contemporary masculinist movements.
1.
The second is that U.S. family laws have not kept pace with changing family
dynamics.
2.
Also, the Internet has made it possible for masculinist men to connect with
one another.
B.
Younger men are redefining masculinity beyond the traditional
breadwinner role. In 2012, for the first time in American history more 18-
90
to 34-year-old women than men say succeeding in a high-paying career is
one of the important things in life.
IV.
The Good Men Project
A.
The Good Men Project is a multifaceted effort to stimulate a national
conversation about what it means to be a good man today.
B.
Started with a book, whose royalties are donated to groups that work with
at-risk boys. Features men telling a story that describes a defining moment
in their lives.
C.
Reading other men’s stories and thoughts can help each man formulate his
own definition of what it means to be good.
D.
In 2010, the online magazine was created featuring stories and columns that
address issues that surface in men’s lives: sex and relationships, sports,
dads, and advice. It facilitates an ongoing conversation about what
masculinity does and what it might mean.
E.
A third of readers of The Good Men Project magazine are women who
want to understand men’s perspectives.
Journal Entries
1.
Identify the branch of the men’s movements with which you are most comfortable, or explain
why none of the men’s movements discussed in the text appeals to you. Discuss reasons and
implications of your stance.
2.
Several of the men’s movements focused on the importance of male friendship and/or
opportunities to mentor other men. Identify the movements that assert this as an important
part of their group’s principles. How important do you think these relationships are? What
are potential positive and negative consequences of focusing on these types of relationships?
What level of importance do you assign to male friendship and mentor opportunities?
3.
Men’s rights groups argue that some contemporary practices and policies, such as child
custody customs and laws, discriminate against men. Investigate some of the laws in place in
your community and discuss whether you believe they are discriminatory. Justify your
responses, indicating why/how you think the laws either do or do not discriminate against
men, and if you believe the laws are discriminatory, offer suggestions for how you think the
issues under consideration could be addressed in nondiscriminatory ways.
Suggested Activities
1.
Exploring the Million Man March: Spike Lee’s film, Get on the Bus, is a useful
springboard for discussion focused upon the Million Man March. Showing a clip (e.g., the
last scene) or the entire film (with the next class set aside for discussion) opens a space to
discuss why men in general are searching for men’s movements and why black men in
particular went to the March. In addition, due to the variety of standpoints on the bus (e.g.,
straight/gay; dark skinned/light skinned; Muslim/Christian, etc.) the film helps move
students away from essentialism.
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2.
Men’s Movements and Spirituality: Kimmel’s and Messner’s book, Men’s Lives, offers a
diverse collection of voices on a multiplicity of topics related to masculinity. The
conclusion of the fourth edition is three pages long and asks why the most recent men’s
movements (mythopoetics, Promise Keepers, and the Million Man March) are focused
upon spiritual renewal. We find this question leads to thought-provoking discussions
regarding the differences and similarities of men’s movements.
3.
Men’s and Women’s Movements Debate: Divide your students into groups and stage a
debate between various women’s and men’s movements (such as radical feminists, third
wave, ecofeminists, Free Men, the Promise Keepers, and NOMAS). Ensure that your
students provide reasoned explanations for their positions that correspond with the beliefs
and ideologies of the movement they are representing. Some potential topics for debate:
How should domestic labor be divided between partners? Should women in the military
engage in combat/should women be required to register for the draft?
4.
Activist Men Panel: Much like with the panel suggested on women’s movements, you
may consider inviting a panel of activist men to talk about their activism in their
communities, both local and global. Because men’s groups tend to be smaller and less
widespread, you may find it hard to find men who identify with a particular group.
However, religious leaders, volunteers and workers for family violence centers, health care
providers, health activists, and others could speak about how their activism targets
gendered issues, including their motivations and goals.
5.
Social Movement Jeopardy: Another great activity that helps students learn and
distinguish between the various types of feminisms and historical movements, while also
sparking class discussion, is to participate in what we call Social Movement Jeopardy. We
also found that this game was a wonderful way for our students to study for their exam.
Start by creating five different categories: Women’s Movements, Men’s Movements,
Gender Movements, Potpourri, and Dates. The conclusion of the fifth edition provides you
with test questions and answers that you can use to help generate questions. Within each
category there are five questions ranging from 100 points to 500 points. The game is
played just like the television show Jeopardy, although due to time constraints, you may
choose to alter it by forming teams of four to five students instead of individual players.
The following questions and answers are provided for you as a starting point. Please add
questions and change dollar values as you see fit.
Women’s Movements
A: Who is Lucretia Coffin Mott?
92
A: What is the Seneca Falls Convention?
A: What are consciousness-raising or rap groups?
A: What is ecofeminism?
A: What is Betty Friedan’s 1963 book The Feminine Mystique?
Men’s Movements
A: What is NOMAS (National Organization for Men against Sexism)?
A: Who are Free Men?
A: Who are Bill McCartney and Dave Wardell of the Promise Keepers?
93
A: Who are male feminists?
A: What is the WRC?
Gender Movements
A: What is anti-feminism/the backlash?
A: Who is Susan Faludi?
A: What is transfeminism?
A: What is a traitorous identity?
Potpourri
A: What is multiracial feminism?
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A: What is revalorism?
A: Who are Minister Louis Farrakhan and Reverend Benjamin Chavis, Jr.?
A: Who are mythopoetic men?
A: What is ACT UP?
A: What is violence against women?
Dates Category
A: What is 1995?
A: What is 1848?
A: What is 1851?
A: What is 1920?
95
A: What is the second wave of the women’s movements?
A: What is the first wave of women’s movements?
A: What is 2008?
A: What is the late 1980s?
A: What is 1964?
A: What is October 24 and 25, 1997?
JUDGMENT CALL 6: HOW IMPORTANT ARE MEN’S ISSUES AND MEN’S
MOVEMENTS?
Men’s movements and efforts to raise awareness of men’s issues are relatively recent
developments in the United States. In the 1960s when the second wave of American feminism
began, there were no identifiable men’s movements. Men who believed that the existing gender
ideology oppressed men as well as women generally defined themselves as male feminists or just
plain feminists. Only in the last two decades of the twentieth century did we see a number of
distinct men’s movements emerge. These movements have offered definitions of men and
manhood and have named problems and oppressions men face.
Some laypersons, scholars, and social commentators think the men’s movements serve
valuable purposes. According to them, men have not reflected enough on the identities society
imposes on them or on the cultural practices that oppress men. At several universities and
colleges, there are men’s studies courses and sometimes whole curricula or departments of men’s
studies, paralleling departments of women’s studies. These courses aim to raise awareness of the
ways in which current social views and expectations of men are oppressive and potentially lethal.
Yet not everyone thinks that men’s movements and men’s studies are needed. Some
96
scholars, laypersons, and social commentators think that men’s movements tend to be made up
of “whiners.” According to them, men are the ones in charge of society so they have no right to
complain about how its practices oppress them. Also, say these critics, men still enjoy the bulk
of privileges, including wealth and status, in American society. Thus, they argue, any problems
men have or discriminations they experience are comparatively much smaller than those facing
women.
What do you think? Is it legitimate to have courses in men’s studies? Are men’s
movements serving valuable purposes in our society? Consider these probes in the course of
answering the questions:
Visit some of the websites for men’s movements that are identified in Chapter 4.
After reading materials on these sites, what do you think of men’s movements? Do
you think the issues they say face men are legitimate? Do you think they are as
compelling as those facing women? Do you or men you know identify with any of
them?
What do you see as the greatest problem or source of oppression facing men in the
United States today? Is it possible to generalize about the “greatest problem facing
men” when men vary in race-ethnicity, economic status, sexual orientation, and so
forth?
What would be the advantages and disadvantages of dismantling programs in
women’s studies and men’s studies and creating programs in gender studies? Does
focusing on each sex and gender separately foster greater self-reflection than would
be likely with a focus on both?
To learn more about the history of men’s studies and the issues addressed in men’s
studies settings, visit the site of the American Men’s Studies Association:
http://www.mensstudies.org/
References
Keen, S. (1991). Fire in the belly: On being a man. New York: Bantam. Read reviews—
positive and negative—of Keen’s book on Amazon.com.
Rabinowitz, F., & Cochran, S. (1994). Man alive: A primer of men’s issues. Pacific Grove,
CA: Brooks/Cole.
JUDGMENT CALL 7: WHERE SHOULD FEMINISTS’ FOCUS BE?
Intersectionality is a central term in much contemporary feminist scholarship and
activism; it is particularly prevalent in the “third wave.” Intersectional scholarship and activism
recognizes the multiple and intersecting axes of power that form our identities and around which
instances of oppression and resistance are enacted. This means that in addition to attending to
issues of gender/sex/sexuality, third-wave intersectional scholars and activists also address
questions of race, class, nationality, and (dis)ability, among others. In turn, some third-wave
intersectional scholars and activists argue that feminists and feminisms must move beyond
“women’s issues” and focus on social justice issues broadly construed. For example, Laboton
and Martin (2004), editors of The Fire This Time, argue “intersectionality suggests those issues
