75
5.
Identifying Theories in Everyday Life. Divide the class into eight groups. Give each
group one of the instructions below. Allow groups 10-15 minutes to complete the
assignment and then have each group present its report to the class.
Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the
perspective of biological theories. You also must be able to explain why this example is
representative of the theoretical approach. Consider what aspects of the theories your example
relates to or demonstrates.
Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the
perspective of psychodynamic theories. You also must be able to explain why this example is
representative of the theoretical approach. Consider what aspects of the theories your example
relates to or demonstrates.
Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the
perspective of social learning theories. You also must be able to explain why this example is
representative of the theoretical approach. Consider what aspects of the theories your example
relates to or demonstrates.
Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the
perspective of cognitive development theories. You also must be able to explain why this example is
representative of the theoretical approach. Consider what aspects of the theories your example
relates to or demonstrates.
Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the
perspective of anthropological theories. You also must be able to explain why this example is
representative of the theoretical approach. Consider what aspects of the theories your example
relates to or demonstrates.
Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects
the perspective of symbolic interactionism. You also must be able to explain why this example
is representative of the theory. Consider what aspects of the theory your example relates to
or demonstrates.
Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects
the perspective of standpoint theory. You also must be able to explain why this example is
representative of the theory. Consider what aspects of the theory your example relates to or
demonstrates.
Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the
perspective of queer performative theory. You also must be able to explain why this example is
representative of the theory. Consider what aspects of the theory your example relates to or
demonstrates.
Chapter 3: The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender:
Competing Images of Women
76
I.
The Three Waves of Women’s Movements
A.
There have been multiple women’s movements. Rhetorical movements
about gender are not uniform and embrace a variety of ideas about gender
and pursue a range of goals.
B.
While many believe that women’s movements began in the 1960s, in fact
activism about women had been happening for much longer than that.
C.
Two ideologies have informed movement goals.
1.Liberal feminism asserts that women and men are similar and equal in
most ways. Therefore, they should have the same rights, roles, and
opportunities.
2.Cultural feminism states that men and women are essentially different
and consequently should have unique rights, roles, and opportunities.
3.U.S. women’s movements are typically referred to chronologically as the
first, second, and third waves. This metaphor has limits. Movements don’t
necessarily fit into neat compartments.
II.
The First Wave of Women’s Movements in the United States
A.
From approximately 1840 to 1925, the first wave of women’s movements
included both liberal and cultural branches that worked together to change
the status and rights of women.
B.
Liberal Ideology: The Women’s Rights Movement
1.
The women’s rights movement arose to gain basic civil rights for women.
2.
Lucretia Coffin Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton helped organize the 1848
Seneca Falls Convention—the first women’s rights convention in the
country.
3.
The keynote address, “The Declaration of Sentiments” catalogued specific
grievances women had suffered (exclusion from the right to vote and all
forms of higher education, limited access to employment, and loss of
property rights upon marriage).
4.
Although some African Americans, including Frederick Douglass, were key
players early in the first wave, tensions between white and black activists
developed, when the Constitution was amended to extend suffrage to black
men, but not to women. Also, the movement came to focus largely on issues
of concern to white women and ignoring differences caused by race.
5.
Women of different sexual orientations and gender expressions and
identities were involved in the early women’s rights movement. They did
not rely on men for protection and were particularly vulnerable to gendered
inequities and they were less constrained by marriage and child rearing.
6.
Women did not gain the right to vote until 72 years after Seneca Falls in
1920.
C.
Cultural Ideology: The Cult of Domesticity
1. Many women of the time thought that men and women were different
that women were suited to the domestic sphere because they were more
moral and nurturing than men. This concept is called the cult of
domesticity.
2. They worked for abolition because slavery destroyed families, lobbied
77
for temperance because alcohol contributed to violence against women
and children, and fought for labor laws to protect children. To have a
voice, they needed to have a vote.
3. After the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, women’s movements
became relatively quiet due to two world wars. However, lack of
opportunities for women outside the home sowed the seeds for the
second wave of U.S. feminism.
III.
The Second Wave of Women’s Movements in the United States
A.
Starting in 1963, the second wave of feminism emerged in the United
States.
B.
Liberal Ideology
1.
The first feminist activism to emerge was radical feminism, also called the
women’s liberation movement. This activism originated in the New Left
politics that protested the Vietnam War and fought for civil rights. Treated
by subordinates in the New Left movement, many women withdrew and
formed their own organizations.
2.
Radical feminists relied on conscious-raising, or “rap,” groups where
3.
Their commitment to equality gave them a deep suspicion of hierarchy and
led to leaderless discussions.
4.
Radical feminists employed revolutionary analysis and politics and high-
profile events to raise awareness of the oppression of women.
5.
Some women involved with radical movements formed organizations to
represent concerns of women of color. Radical feminism also fostered the
activism of many lesbian, bisexual, trans, and gender nonconforming
women who were not included in the political agendas of other movements.
6.
One important outcome of radical feminism was the identification of the
structural basis of women’s oppression. The connection between individual
situations and social structures and practices was captured in the idea that
“the personal is political.”
7.
Another branch, mainstream second-wave feminism, which advocates
women’s social, economic, educational, and political equality, was ignited
by the publication of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique in 1963.
a. In this book, Friedan described what she referred to as “the problem
that has no name”: the dissatisfaction and discontent women
experienced due to their limited opportunities outside of the home.
b. This lack of access was the result of structural and institutional
inequalities in the United States.
8.
Second-wave liberal feminism was characterized by more focus on and
leadership by white, middle-class women, but the movement was not “lily
white.”
9.
Womanism was founded by a group of black women to show how race and
gender intersect in the oppression of women of color. Womanists point out
that black women, in comparison to white women, are more often single,
have more children, are paid less, and assume more financial responsibility
78
for their families.
a. Womanists also focus on how class intersects race and sex in
women’s lives to create inequality.
10.
In 1997, African-American women held the Million Woman March led by
a steering committee of average women. Building on this movement and
activism, three black women created #BlackLivesMatter.
11. Multiracial feminism builds on the focus on equality for black
women with a global perspective, emphasizing multiple systems of
domination.
a. In this movement, race is especially important but is also
intertwined with other systems of oppression.
b. According to multiracial feminists, gender does not have a universal
meaning; instead gender and its effects on women’s lives are
defined by a race, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, gender
identity, and so forth.
c. A central theme of both womanism and multiracial feminism is an
emphasis on women’s agency.
12. Ecofeminism argues that there is a connection between women’s
oppression and the desire to dominate nature.
a. Ecofeminists believe that as long as oppression is culturally
valued, it will be imposed on anyone or anything that cannot or
will not resist it.
b. In this movement, all forms of oppression are linked, and
feminism is about justice and ending all forms of oppression.
C.
Cultural Ideology
1.
Separatism sought to provide communities for women to live
independently of men.
a.
Separatists believed that feminine values of harmony, peace, life,
equality, and nurturance gained little hearing in a patriarchal,
capitalist society.
b.
They have very little political influence because they choose to live
outside of the dominant political system.
2.
Revalorism highlights women’s traditional activities and contributions to
society.
a.
From standpoint theory, revalorists argue that women’s
traditional involvement in childcare and domestic responsibilities
makes them more nurturing, supportive, and cooperative than
men.
IV.
Contemporary Feminism
A.
A new generation of feminist activism began emerging in the late 1980s.
Younger feminists are distinct from early generations because they are
beneficiaries of the second wave.
B.
Riot Grrrl
1.
Riot Grrrl was an underground feminist movement that began in the late
1980s and was aligned with punk music, radical politics, and Do-It-Yourself
ethics.
79
2.
Forming feminist collectives across the country, they created and self-
published music, art, and magazines in order to tell women’s stories.
3.
Many scholars consider Riot Grrrl to signal the beginning of third-wave
feminism as a whole.
C.
Power Feminism
1.
Power feminism emerged in the early 1990s and argues that society does
not oppress women because women have the power to control what happens
to them.
a.
Naomi Wolf tells women the only thing holding them back from
equality is their own belief that they are victims. Similarly, Katie
Roiphe argued that “proclaiming victimhood” (her perception of the
Take Back the Night movement) does not project strength.
b.
Power feminism ignores the difference between being a victim at a
particular time and adopting the identity of a victim.
c.
Power feminism tends to be most attractive to financially comfortable,
well-educated women who have little or no personal experience with
discrimination and violence.
D.
Transfeminism
1.
Transfeminism is a movement by and for trans and gender nonconforming
people. Trans and gender nonconforming people have been active
participants in women’s movements from the beginning and have informed
intersectional feminism for decades.
2.
It argues that not only is gender socially constructed but sex is also socially
constructed. Society’s expectations of how males and females should look,
behave, and feel are arbitrary.
3.
Three primary beliefs: People have the right to define and express their own
identities; people have the right to expect society to respect the identities
they claim and express; and people have the right to bodily autonomy
without fear of discrimination or violations from anyone.
4.
They believe that their liberation is directly linked to the liberation of all
women, so the movement invites all people to reflect on the extent to which
they have internalized gender stereotypes and heterosexist and patriarchal
perspectives.
E.
Mainstream Third-Wave Feminism
1.
Mainstream third-wave feminism includes women of different ethnicities,
abilities and disabilities, classes, appearances, sexual orientations, and
gender identities.
2.
Intersectionality: Third-wave feminists recognize that women differ in
ways that significantly shape their experiences and opportunities. They
focus on the intersectionality oppression: Race, class, sexual orientation,
body shape and size, and (dis)ability are woven together and must be
addressed holistically.
3.
Coalitions and Alliances: Third wavers form relationships with other
people and groups that work against various forms of oppression.
4.
Everyday Resistance: Third-wave feminists note that many second-wave
reforms have not been woven into everyday life. Sexism is more subtle and
80
more challenging to fight. Personal acts in local contexts are seen as a key
way to instigate change.
5.
Media Savvy: Third-wave feminists tend to be digitally networked, gaining
information from numerous sources and creating media of their own. They
are likely to learn immediately of new developments from blogs and social
media. They also organize online.
6.
Consumerism and individualism: This is not a component for all third-
wavers; however, some readily embrace “girl culture” and emphasize being
sexy and feminine, which often involves a great deal of product
consumption.
7.
The third wave’s focus on individual choice is attractive, but there are some
obstacles that cannot be overcome by individual effort and require structural
change that grows from collective political action.
F.
Hip-Hop Feminism
1.
Hip-hop feminism is rooted in black feminism and responsive to concerns
of the post-civil rights or hip-hop generation.
2.
Distinct from other branches of third-wave feminism because it is centered
on the needs and experiences of young black women and draws on hip-hop
as a subculture committed to challenging the status quo.
3.
Some forms of racist discrimination have been prohibited, but systemic
racism persists.
4.
Some hip-hop has abandoned the genre’s social justice roots and has been
critiqued for its misogyny and glorification of violence. Other artists,
however, challenge gender norms and misogyny in their lyrics.
G.
The first stirrings of a new stage in feminist activism were evidence on
January 21, 2017, as women across the world marched with their allies in
over 650 cities.
Journal Entries
1.
Identify the branch of feminism with which you identify the most, or explain why you
identify with none of the feminisms discussed in the text. Reflect on the reasons and
implications of your choice.
2.
Explain the differences and similarities between womanist feminism and multiracial
feminism. How can women of color add a unique perspective to other types of feminism?
Comment on what impact you think these emerging movements will have on systems of
oppression.
3.
Some people claim that power feminism should not be considered feminism at all. What
do you think? Justify your position, including describing who decides what counts as
feminist and how those judgments should be made.
4.
Riot Grrrl was an indie/punk feminist movement in the 1990s music scene that some
scholars think marks the beginning of third-wave feminism. Do research to learn about this
movement and then describe how you think it does or does not meet the goals of third-wave
81
feminism.
5.
Radical feminists argued that gender was the principle axis around which oppression
revolved. Multiracial feminists and third-wave feminists, in contrast, argue that gender is not
the central axis of oppression; indeed, they maintain that gender identity/gender oppression
cannot be understood without also considering issues of race, ethnicity, class, sexual
orientation, ability, and so on. Weigh in on the debate. Do you think there is a central form
of oppression? Can gender oppression be understood as separate from the issues listed
above?
Suggested Activities
1.
Examining Third-Wave Texts: One text that is useful in conjunction with this chapter is
Barbara Findlen’s Listen Up! Voices from the Next Feminist Generation, which is discussed
in this chapter. Select one or two chapters to prompt a specific conversation regarding what
feminism means to people today. Abra Fortune Chernik’s essay on her own struggle with
eating disorders is particularly provocative and is mentioned specifically in the textbook.
Ask students to take five minutes to write their reactions to her claim that: “Gaining weight
and getting my head out of the toilet bowl was the most political act I have ever committed.”
Do they think her change of behaviors was a political act? What are the implications for
feminism? Then, bring their responses into a large discussion. Another interesting facet to
discuss is Chernik’s criticism of supermodels and the fashion industry—ask your students if
a supermodel can be a feminist?
2.
Feminist Panel Discussion: Invite a panel of members of various women’s movements to
class. Obviously, it will be difficult to find a representative of every women’s movement, so
try to find individuals you think will represent effectively views from several of the areas.
3.
The First Wave in Film: Iron Jawed Angels is a fictional depiction of the last days of first-
wave feminism, with a focus on Alice Paul and Lucy Burns. Show part, or all, of the film in
order to explore the first wave of women’s movements. Ask students to pay attention to the
issues addressed by activists as well as the rhetorical strategies activists employed. Similarly,
ask students to attend to the films themselves as rhetorical documents. Movie star Hillary
Swank plays Alice Paul and the film’s creators manufacture a male love interest for her,
played by Patrick Dempsey. However, most historians agree that Paul was a lesbian and
likely in a romantic relationship with Lucy Burns. What do these and other rhetorical choices
made by the film’s creators tell us about contemporary attitudes toward women’s rights
and/or feminisms?
4.
Radical Third-Wave Activism: Show a clip from Itty Bitty Titty Committee (2007), a film
that depicts a young Latina woman working in a plastic surgery clinic who comes to a
political consciousness through a feminist activist group called the C(I)A (Clits in Action).
Discuss what feminist movement the film most closely portrays and how the C(I)A functions
as feminist. (The production company describes it as radical feminism [http://power-
up.net/ibtc.htm], and it also includes third-wave feminist elements.)
82
5.
Create a Women’s Movement: Many times students do not feel connected to one of the
specific women’s movements. They may be lacking in some ways for them, too radical in
others, or simply not in line with their personal and political beliefs. Borrowing from the
movements in the text and using their own ideas, students should outline their own women’s
movement. They should identify key goals of the movement, write a mission statement, and
note two actions the group could take. This activity may be done individually or in groups. If
completed individually, students will be able to draw on their own personal beliefs, goals,
and values. If completed as a group, their movement may need to be more hypothetical since
it will be unlikely that a random group of 4 of 5 classmates will share the same perspectives
about women’s roles, rights, and responsibilities. Students could present their ideas to the
class or turn in a written document.
6.
Further Exploring Women’s Movements: The films I Am Woman (a two-part series) and
Two Views on Feminism explore the beliefs of current women involved in feminist or anti-
feminist movements. The first examines African-American feminism and the current state of
feminism. The second film contrasts two very different contemporary women’s movements.
Students can learn more about these movements and discuss how they do and do not resonate
with the movements.
JUDGMENT CALL 1: WHAT IS FEMINISM?
Feminism is a very ambiguous word that means different things to different people. This
has always been true. In the 1800s, some people of both sexes saw the first wave of feminism as
a movement for the rights women obviously deserved but had been denied in the United States.
Other women and men saw feminism as an appalling movement that challenged both secular
traditions and divine laws. The second wave of feminism in the United States, which began in
the 1960s, was equally controversial and aroused equally disparate judgments—it was viewed as
a virtuous liberation movement and a contemptible affront to home, family, and the rightful roles
of man and woman.
Opinions about feminists are every bit as divergent as those about feminism. Feminists
are described as courageous crusaders for civil rights, man-hating bra burners, peace-loving
people, and wreckers of tradition. They are viewed as confident and aggressive, brave and
brazen, and moderate and extremist. There is probably no social movement in America about
which opinions are more divided.
What do you think feminism is? Now that you’ve read about different branches of
feminism, can you create an all-encompassing definition of what it is and what it stands for? The
following website and prompts may help you think about this issue.
To learn how National Organization for Women (NOW), the most prominent
mainstream feminist organization, defines feminism and feminist issues, go to:
http//www.now.org/. Next, use a search engine to find terms such as critiques of feminism
and problems with feminism.
Identify recurrent criticisms of feminism.
Do these criticisms seem valid in light of the information presented in Chapter 3 of your
textbook?
Do feminists offer responses to the criticisms (for instance, does the NOW website
83
address any of them)? If so, how do feminists respond?
Having read about many different kinds of feminism, can you identify any themes that
weave through the range of feminisms? What, if anything, is common to the different
branches of feminism in the United States?
Is feminism needed as a movement in the United States today?
Is feminism a social, intellectual, political, or philosophical movement, or is it a
combination of these?
References
Feminist Agenda Homepage. Retrieved from http://www.got.net/~elained/index.html
Whelan, I. (1995). Modern feminist thought: From the second wave to “post feminism.”
New York University Press.
JUDGMENT CALL 2:
IS POWER FEMINISM FEMINIST?
Power feminists such as Naomi Wolf and Katie Roiphe (discussed in Chapter 3) claim
that they are feminists and that the principles and goals they advance are feminist. At the same
time, they criticize mainstream feminism and feminists for encouraging women to see
themselves as victims and for not urging women to take charge of their lives and quit
complaining about discrimination, violence against women, and other forms of oppression.
Critics of power feminism argue that the movement is both anti-woman and anti-feminist. They
claim that the women who advocate it are financially very well off, attractive, college educated,
and otherwise privileged. Critics charge that power feminism may work for women who are
advantaged, but it doesn’t speak for or about women who do not enjoy privileges such as
wealth and education.
Do you think power feminism is feminist? To answer the question, reread the discussion
in Chapter 3 and then consider the prompts for reflection:
Who defines whether a movement is feminist or not? Do people such as Naomi
Wolf and Katie Roiphe have the right to call themselves “power feminists” if they
choose to?
What makes a movement feminist?
Must a movement represent all women to be feminist?
Does mainstream feminism encourage women to see themselves as victims as some
power feminists claim?
Can all—or most—women take charge of their own lives with the resources they
command and current social structures and practices?
What entitles someone to speak for others or to claim to represent the interests of
others? Wolf and Roiphe, for example, claim to speak for “women,” yet Wolf and
Roiphe are atypically privileged financially, educationally, and otherwise. Does
their privileged status affect the credibility of their claim to speak for women?
In what ways is power feminists’ assertion that women should quit complaining
about discrimination similar to charges that racial minorities should quit complaining
84
about discrimination?
References
hooks, b. (1994). Outlaw culture. New York: Routledge.
Roiphe, K. (1993). The morning after: Sex, fear, and feminism on campus. Boston, MA:
Little, Brown. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this book.
Wolf, N. (1993). Fire with fire: The new female power and how it will change the
21stcentury. New York: Random House. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this book.
Wood, J. T. (1996). Dominant and muted discourses in popular representations of
feminism. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 82, 171–185.
JUDGMENT CALL 3:
SHOULD THE EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT BE PASSED?
The complete text of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is this: “Equality of rights
under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of
sex.”
In 1972 the amendment was introduced into Congress and was quickly winning support
in state-by-state balloting. In 1973, 35 of the 38 states needed to ratify the amendment had voted
for it. Then Phyllis Schlafly launched the Stop ERA movement and the amendment was
defeated. Schlafly and others who worked to defeat the ERA argued that, if passed, it would
destroy femininity, turn women into men, and undermine the traditional balance of power and
roles in families. Interestingly, one of the most effective arguments against ERA was that it
would mean women and men would use the same bathrooms. Since the amendment was
defeated in the 1970s, it has repeatedly been introduced into Congress and repeatedly been
passed by. Today the ERA is not the law of the land.
Do you think the ERA should be passed? Visit the websites identified next and then
consider the prompts to decide where you stand on this issue.
Debate about the ERA is not limited to the last 40 years. To read arguments for and
against the ERA that were presented in the 1920s, visit these two websites:
http://www.equalrightsamendment.org/why.htm and
http://www.arragopwing.com/eraposition.html
What would be the value of passing the ERA? Is the amendment strictly symbolic or
would it also have material, pragmatic consequences in how women and men live,
work, and interact?
If the ERA would not necessitate any real changes, then what is the justification for
opposing it?
Does the lack of ERA’s passage mean that the United States is not committed to
equal rights for men and women?
Why did the idea of having women and men share the same bathrooms convince
many people to vote against ERA? In many other countries, including first world
countries, public restrooms are not sex-segregated.
If you wanted to become actively involved in pushing for ratification of the ERA,
85
what campaign strategies would you use? How would you structure your advocacy
to lessen the likelihood that another Stop ERA campaign could succeed?
References
Campbell, K. (1983). To be or not to be a woman. Communication Quarterly, 31, 101–
108.
Davis, F. (1991). Moving the mountain: The women’s movement in America since 1960.
New York: Simon and Schuster. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this book.
Solomon, M. (1983). Stopping ERA: A pyrrhic victory. Communication Quarterly, 31,
109–117.
JUDGMENT CALL 4: WHO CAN USE MEN’S AND WOMEN’S
BATHROOMS?
In her book The Alchemy of Race and Rights (1991) Patricia Williams describes an
experience she had while teaching law in California. One of her students, whom she refers to
only as S., began law school as a man but was very unhappy as a man. S. had a sex change
operation. One of the greatest practical problems S. faced after the operation was using the
bathroom. Women students objected to having S. use the women’s restroom and claimed they
felt “raped” when she entered. Male students were equally vociferous in insisting that S. could
not use the men’s restroom because they perceived S. might feel attracted to them. It was
proposed that S. would use the dean’s bathroom, but the dean felt this would violate his “inner
sanctum” and give S. access to his private office that no other students had.
In more recent news, the debate surrounding transgender people using bathrooms has
been quite heated. Consider the North Carolina bathroom bill introduced in March 2016 that
restricted use of bathrooms so that transgender people would have to use the bathroom
matching the sex they were assigned at birth rather than the gender they identified with.
Consider also the case of Gavin Grimm who sued his school after it decided he would
not be allowed to use the boy’s bathroom. Later, the school provided a unisex bathroom for
Gavin to use.
Many universities have now adopted a policy of having unrestricted bathrooms that are
not for a particular sex or gender. These inclusive bathrooms remove the choices transgender
students have to make and also attempt to combat the potential harassment or danger they could
face when using the bathroom.
What do you think the right answer is to the question of who can use what bathroom?
Consider the following:
What does it mean to be transgender? How you view the case of S., and an appropriate
resolution of it depends on your knowledge of S. and others like her. If you’d like to learn
more, visit either or both of these websites: http://www.ftmi.org/ or http://www.itpeople.org
Is sex or gender a property of individuals?
Who decides what is appropriate and inappropriate for each sex and each gender? Should
others have the right to define who a person is and what she or he can and cannot do?
How are arguments for bathroom restrictions also influenced by gender? For example,