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References
Hochschild, A., with Machung, A. (1989). The second shift: Working parents and the
revolution at home. New York: Viking/Penguin. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this
book.
Suitor, J. (1991). Marital quality and satisfaction with the division of household labor.
Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 221–230.
Wood, J. T. (1996). But I thought you meant. . .: Misunderstandings in human
communication. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. (Read Chapter 17, “A Fair Share,” pages 224–
239).
Chapter 10: Gendered Organizational Communication
I.
Gendered Stereotypes in the Workplace
A.
Social expectations of sexes influence how we treat people in professional
contexts.
B.
Stereotypes of Women
1.
Women in the workplace are often stereotyped into one of four categories.
2.
Sex Object
a.
The sex object stereotype defines a woman’s value by her sexual
attractiveness, perceiving women based on their appearance rather
than their qualifications.
b.
Federal law forbids discrimination based on sex, race, national origin,
age, disability, and religion. Some qualities are considered bona fide
occupational requirements.
c.
This stereotyping contributes to sexual harassment women and of
members of the LGBTQ community.
3.
Mother
a.
The stereotype of woman as mother has figurative and literal forms.
The figurative version is expressed when others expect women to take
care of everyone.
b.
This stereotyping also leads to segregation of female employees into
positions providing support and care for others, such as clerical and
service positions.
c.
The literal form of mother is employees who are also mothers. These
women are perceived as less serious. They are less likely to be hired
or promoted and are offered lower salaries.
i.
Fatherhood tends to benefit male workers, who are seen as
more committed to earning an income.
ii.
The term maternal wall refers to unexamined
assumptions held by coworkers and superiors about how
women will behave at work after they become mothers.
4.
Child
a.
This stereotype sees women as a child, or pet—cute but not to be
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taken seriously. Women are assumed to need the protection of adults.
b.
Often stereotyping women as children is justified as protecting
women from the harsh realities of the world. One example of this is
the obstacles of women serving in law enforcement.
5.
Iron Maiden
a.
Stereotyping a woman who is ambitious, directive, competitive, and
sometimes tough as an iron maiden defines a woman with these
qualities as competent, but unlikable because they are unfeminine.
b.
It is a compliment to call a male worker ambitious, but not necessarily
for women.
C.
Stereotypes of Men
1.
Men in the workplace are often stereotyped in ways that reflect cultural views
of masculinity and that affect how men are perceived and treated.
2.
Sturdy Oak
a.
The sturdy oak is a self-sufficient pillar of strength. With this view,
men may rule out consulting others for advice or assistance.
3.
Fighter
a.
Men are superman-like warriors who go into battle, either literally or
metaphorically. Fighters should be aggressive and win at all costs—
there is no room to be less than fully committed.
b.
Men who ask for paternal leave can face hostility for not putting their
career first. Men are increasingly resisting this pressure.
4.
Breadwinner
a.
One of the strongest stereotypes of men is that of breadwinner. It’s
the reason they are often paid more than woman, but also why they
are expected to put work ahead of family time.
b.
Men who tie their identity and worth to earning power are in danger
in a culture where gender roles are evolving.
D.
Nonbinary Gender in Organizations
1.
Lesbian gay, bisexual, and trans workers are often met with hostility for
challenging gender in the workplace, and they may have fewer legal
protections.
2.
Performing nonbinary gender, like wearing something outside the norm, can
risk hostility by colleague, eligibility for promotion, or the job itself.
3.
There are no consistent federal protections for sexual orientation and gender
identity and expression.
4.
Narrow gender stereotypes limit the potential of all workers.
II.
Masculine Norms in Professional Life
A.
Because men have historically dominated institutional life, masculine norms in
professional life infuse the workplace.
B.
Traditional Masculine Images of Leaders
1.
The communication skills developed in masculine speech communities are
often associated with management and leadership skills. These skills include
assertiveness, independence, competitiveness, and confidence.
2.
There are some gender differences in how individuals approach work,
including leadership. Men tend to find having authority intrinsically
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rewarding, whereas women are more likely to find it rewarding when
coupled with having influence.
3.
Feminine communicators should become proficient complying with
masculine norms, and masculine communicators should develop skills in
collaboration and support.
4.
In fact, the most effective leadership styles are those that blend relationship–
building and instrumental qualities.
C.
Traditionally Masculine Norms for Career Paths
1.
We tend to think of careers as linear, that we start at an entry position and
work our way up the ladder. We also think of them as being full-time jobs.
This assumption reflects social relations of previous eras.
2.
Workers often want organizations to have more flexible schedules and policies
to accommodate family and life choices that are not consistent with the full-
time, linear model (such as flexible hours, on-site child care, part-time work,
and more flexible overall career paths).
3.
Recent research shows that women who work outside of the home are as happy
and healthy than stay-at-home mothers, and among single mothers, more so.
Children of working mothers are just as advanced academically, emotionally
balanced, and socially adjusted as those of stay-at-home mothers.
a.
When mothers who leave paid work to care for children attempt to
return, they run into obstacles.
III.
Gendered Patterns in Organizations
A.
Formal Practices
1.
Leave Policies
a.
The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) states that employees can
take up to 12 weeks unpaid leave to care for new babies or sick family
members. In 2010, this was extended to workers in same-sex
relationships who needed time to care for a partner’s child.
b.
However, FMLA covers only about 60% of employees in the United
States. Some states have enacted more generous family leave laws.
c.
Since FMLA does not require that employers pay employees on leave,
many workers cannot afford to take leave.
d.
The United States is the only high-income country and one of few
countries in general that does not provide a guaranteed paid family
leave policy.
i.
The United States shares this distinction with Oman, Papua
New Guinea, and Tonga.
2.
Work Schedules
a.
Rigid work schedules are another reflection of outdated career
models. This model doesn’t accommodate two-worker or single-
parent families with young children.
b.
Women are more likely than men to take off work in order to provide
care for children.
c.
Providing more leave time and flexible working hours can actually
save employers money by boosting worker productivity, increasing
morale, and reducing turnover.
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d.
A nursing home in Sweden reduced work hours without
reducing pay and saw increased productivity.
B.
Informal Practices
1.
Unwelcoming Environments for Women
a.
Even when used unintentionally, language relating to sports, sexuality,
and the military may bind men into a masculine community in which
some women feel unwelcome.
2.
The Informal Network
a.
Informal networks, or the “old boy network,” are comprised of
predominately male members. Hiring and promotion decisions are often
made through informal communication within these networks.
b.
Informal networks are made up people who see themselves as similar,
which can create barriers for coworkers who are not like most of the people
in the group. Women, people of color, and gender nonconforming workers
may avoid informal networks and lose out on key sources of information
and support.
3.
Mentoring Relationships
a.
A mentor is an experienced person who helps guide the development of
a less-experienced person. Women and minorities are less likely to have
mentors than white men.
b.
Reasons for the lower number of mentors for minorities and women
include:
i.
Fewer women and minorities work in senior positions, which
results in less opportunity for new female and/or minority
employees to be mentored.
ii.
Men are sometimes reluctant to mentor young women for fear of
gossip about sexual relations, they may assume women are less
serious about their careers, or they may feel less comfortable with
women than with men.
c.
Some women have formed their own networks to compensate to provide
women with support and a sense of belonging with other professionals
d.
.Another challenge is workplace bullying, which is repeatedly acting
toward another person in a way that humiliates, intimidates, or undermines
the person’s credibility.
e.
Women and gender nonconforming workers are more frequently the
targets of bullying by both men and other women.
i.
Men bully men and women equally.
ii.
Women tend to more frequently bully other women. This could
possibly be explained by the early socialization of girls to evaluate
and critique other girls.
4.
Glass Ceilings and Glass Walls
a.
The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that limits the advancement of
women and minorities. This most often results from subtle discrimination.
b.
The term glass walls is a metaphor for sex segregation on the job, in
which women are placed in positions that require traditionally feminine
skills (assistant, clerical, counseling, human relations). These jobs
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typically do not include opportunities for advancement.
IV.
Efforts to Redress Gendered Inequity in Institutions
A.
Equal Opportunity Laws
1.
Equal opportunity laws grew out of the Brown v. Board of Education case in
1954 that overturned the doctrine of “separate but equal” educational systems
for white and black students.
2.
The two main equal opportunity laws passed since Brown are:
a.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964), which prohibits
discrimination in employment.
b.
Title IX (1972), which forbids discrimination in educational programs
that receive federal aid.
c.
Several other equal opportunity laws have been passed as well, the
most recent of which is the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009.
3.
Equal opportunity laws focus on discrimination against individuals, not
groups. Complaints must claim a particular person has suffered
discrimination and focus on present practices.
4.
Recent EEOC rulings have extended protections against sex
discrimination to workers based on gender identity and sexual
orientation, but these protections vary from state to state.
B.
Affirmative Action Policies
1.
Affirmative action grew from the need to address the weight of historical
prejudice. It is based on three key ideas.
a.
Historical patterns of discrimination have affected groups of people, so
remedies must apply to groups, not individuals.
b.
To compensate for a legacy of discrimination, there must be
preferential treatment of qualified members of groups that have
suffered discrimination.
c.
The effectiveness of remedies is judged by results, not just intent.
2.
Affirmative action has two important limitations.
a.
Affirmative action recognizes the limited availability of qualified
people from historically underrepresented groups. Fewer women and
minorities may have the education and experience to be qualified.
b.
Affirmative action does not encourage admitting, hiring, or promoting
women and minorities that are not qualified. “Qualified” means that
applicants meet requirements, but they are not necessarily the “best
qualified.”
3.
Affirmative action attempts to compensate for the effects of a history of bias
by giving preference to members of groups who are qualified despite
discrimination.
4.
Public debate has been vigorous. A controversial study claimed student
admitted under affirmative action policies were less likely to be able to
succeed, but many scholars refute those findings.
5.
The Supreme Court has issued a number of rulings to clarify and refine
affirmative action. In 2003, they ruled race cannot be the deciding factor but
may be a factor. In 2013, they reaffirmed this ruling.
6.
The most recent case, Fisher v. University of Texas, involved a white woman
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claiming she had been denied admission based on her race. The Court ruled
against Fisher.
7.
In recent years, there has been growing interest in revising affirmative action
to give preference based on socioeconomic status rather than race-ethnicity.
C.
Quotas
1.
A quota specifies a number or percentage of some group that must be
admitted, hired, or promoted. This can mean if there are not enough qualified
people to meet a quota, unqualified people must be promoted.
D.
Goals
1.
Goals consist of an institution’s stated intention to achieve representation of
minorities or women. There are no penalties for failing to meet the goal.
2.
Goals and quotas may work against women and minorities.
a.
The quota or goal is seen as the maximum (rather than the minimum)
number of women or minorities who will be admitted, hired, or
promoted.
b.
Other institutional members may assume they got in only because of
their sex or race and thus women and minorities may be perceived as
underqualified.
E.
Diversity Training
1.
Diversity training aims to increase awareness of and respect for differences
that arise from distinct standpoints. It is often implemented in combination
with one of the other remedies listed above.
2.
A limitation of diversity training is that it requires strong personal
commitment from participants. Many people are unwilling to make changes,
especially those that reduce their own privilege.
Journal Entries
1.
Do you think family leaves should be available to both male and female parents?
Should both be required to take time off for families?
2.
Explain why you support a certain “remedy” for gender inequities or why you don’t favor
any discussed in Chapter 10 of Gendered Lives. For example, the majority of students say
they benefit educationally from ethnic and racial diversity on their campuses; yet, this may
not mean that they support affirmative action policies. Where do you stand?
3.
Reflect upon your own or others’ organizational experiences. Have you observed instances
of classifying women or men according to the sex stereotypes identified in this chapter?
How are these stereotypes imposed upon workers? How might workers resist being
stereotyped?
4.
Imagine you are in a long-term committed romantic relationship. How would you feel if
your partner made more money than you? How would you feel if you made more money
than your partner? Imagine you two decide to have children. Who, if either of you, will stay
home with the child? Could you imagine ever having a different arrangement?
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5.
First, come up with a best-case scenario of yourself as a worker and/or parent ten years from
now. What would an average, good workday look like? Next, consider whether some of the
formal and informal gendered organizational patterns discussed in Chapter 10 would help
you enact or hinder you from enacting an average, good day. If gendered organizational
patterns stand in the way, how would you suggest changing those patterns to allow you (and
others) to achieve their dreams and goals?
Suggested Activities
1.
Panel: Balancing Work and Home: Invite a panel of dual-worker couples to discuss ways
they balance roles, duties, and obligations within the home and professional organization. In
our classes, students have responded favorably to this panel as they move out of the
educational system and into organizational contexts. Couples negotiating these challenges
often open the eyes of students to the “pitfalls” and pleasures of dual-worker relationships.
In discussing your expectations with the couples you invited to participate, encourage them
to reflect on and discuss such issues as “second shift” duties in the home and caregiving
responsibilities for children and parents, when applicable. Student response tends to be
highly positive to this panel, as it illustrates challenges they have not considered in
conducting and maintaining relationships.
2.
Stereotypes in the Workplace: Split your class into small groups (minimum of three
people). Assign each group a stereotype. Provide ten minutes for them to brainstorm how to
perform the act(s) of stereotyping. Ask them to perform (within five minutes) for the larger
class. This exercise helps students identify the type of comments and behaviors that are
communicated to reinforce limiting gender stereotypes. The instructor that introduced us to
this popular exercise recommends you caution your students that no one should perform the
stereotype (because they are most often inaccurate). This exercise is directed at how people
stereotype individuals who are, in return, limited by these reductionary roles.
3.
Nickel and Dimed: Assigning chapters from Barbara Ehrenreich’s Nickel and Dimed
provides an excellent springboard for rich discussions concerning labor, hierarchy, and
mobility that often lead naturally into debates surrounding legislation to redress inequities.
Some possibilities for opening discussion: To what extent are people able to freely choose
their labor? What are the precursors to choosing one’s labor, and to social mobility? (i.e.
education, proper food and shelter, health care, etc.) How might we better enable choice
and mobility for America’s working and poverty classes? Given the ways in which sexism,
racism, and classism have historically informed social hierarchies, what methods of redress
do you think are useful and/or productive?
4.
Panel: Nontraditionally Gendered Workers: Invite a panel of speakers who work in jobs
that are not or have not historically been seen in our culture as typical for their sex. This
may include female lawyers, construction workers, police officers and male nurses,
elementary school teachers, and administrative assistants. Ask the panelists to speak about
how they navigate another-sex-dominated field given their sex, including any difficulties
and positive aspects. Ask your students to generate questions for the panelists. You may
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also want to consider inviting people who identify as queer in some way (e.g., gay, lesbian,
transgender) to talk about their experience being queer in the workplace.
5.
The Price of Passing: Spradlin’s article “The Price of Passing” is a short essay about the
strategies she used to negotiate being a closeted lesbian in her workplace. Have students
read this article and discuss it in small groups, using the following discussion questions: (1)
What are the strategies Spradlin used and how did she employ them? (2) Why do you think
Spradlin did not simply reveal her sexuality? (3) How easy do you think it is now for
LGBTQ people to come out in the workplace? (4) Think of an organization you are part of.
Do you think that members of that organization feel pressure to hide their sexuality? Why
or why not? You may add additional discussion questions to this exercise. This is also a
good time to discuss and potentially debate the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” policy. Many
students are surprised to hear that the policy is viewed by many as discriminatory and
degrading.
6.
Difficult Decisions: Place students into small groups and ask them to read the following
scenario and consider the questions that follow. Debrief the exercise as a large group. What
assumptions ground students’ arguments and decisions? How are different activities,
including work, art, and raising children, valued? Did any group come up with creative
solutions to the scenario?
Jennifer has worked the night shift at ACME organization for six years. A single woman,
she recently adopted a five-year-old child. There is no night-time child care available in
her area. To accommodate her child-care needs, Jennifer requested that she be transferred
to the day shift. In order to meet Jennifer’s request, Jennifer’s boss, Susan, asks Tanesha,
who has worked the day shift for the past ten years, to switch schedules with Jennifer.
Tanesha is in a committed relationship and has no children. She is active in numerous
arts, including a symphony orchestra that rehearses Tuesday and Thursday evenings and
a wind quintet that works together on Mondays and Wednesdays at the same times. She
is highly reluctant to switch to the night shift because doing so would require her to give
up her music; moreover, her partner works days and she prefers a work schedule that
matches her partner’s.
How would you assess Jennifer’s request? Is it legitimate? Should the organization
accommodate her parenting needs? Why or why not? What do you think of Tanesha’s
response? Should her participation in the arts be part of the calculation? Why or why not?
Should her longer tenure with the organization confer her any rights or privileges? Should
the fact that she is in a committed relationship enter the discussion? Why or why not? If
you were Susan, how would you resolve this situation?
7.
Affirmative Action, Equal Opportunities, Quotas, and Goals in Action: This activity
helps students understand these four ways of redressing inequities by applying them to a
specific case. Give students the handout that follows, and ask them to follow the
instructions. This activity works best if the students work in small groups. After they have
worked in groups, share and discuss their answers in the large group to ensure that they
understand the differences between these policies.
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Answers to question 1 will vary. You might consider discussing this question last in order to
explore the differences between what the policies mandate and what the students think is
right or fair.
The correct answer to question 4 could be Marjorie or Mason, but the quota policy might
mean Marjorie would be hired since the organization is so far from reaching its quota.
Quota policies tend to be enforced, though, when they are not reached, rather than during
hiring, promotion, and admission. Note that strict quotas can result in an underqualified
person being hired.
NOTE: Be prepared that the discussion could become heated about these policies. Some
people feel strongly about these remedies, and they may want to share those perspectives,
especially if they think one of the policies results in an unfair situation for one of the
potential applicants. To help you prepare, be sure you are very clear on the policies. Also,
you may want to learn what policies are used at your university or college. It is likely that
students may want to talk about their experience at your institution, and it’s helpful if you
can accurately tell them which policies are used.
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Affirmative Action, Equal Opportunities, Quotas, and Goals in
Action
Directions: Read the scenario below. Then follow the instructions for each numbered question.
Scenario: Marjorie (a woman), Layla (a woman), and Mason (a man) are applying for the same
job as a loan officer at The American Bank. The job requires a degree in a finance or banking-
related field. Typically, men have tended to dominate the banking industry, and 80% of
employees at TAB are men. Layla and Mason both have undergraduate degrees in personal
finance. Marjorie has an undergraduate degree in English with a 4.0 GPA. Mason has an MBA;
however, an MBA is not required to apply for or to do the job. Both Layla and Mason perform
well in interviews, and each of their references check out well. It seems that both Layla and
Mason are qualified and would do well in the job.
1. Who do you think should be hired?
2. If The American Bank used affirmative action, who should be hired? Why?
3. If The American Bank used equal opportunity, who should be hired? Why?
4. Layla has withdrawn her application because she got another job. Now only Marjorie and
Mason are potential employees. If The American Bank had a quota policy of having 40%
female employees by the next year, who should be hired. Why?
5. All three applicants are still contenders. If The American Bank had a goal policy of
having 40% female employees by the next year, who should be hired? Why?
238
JUDGMENT CALL 10: SHOULD ALL WORK PLACES BE
REQUIRED TO PROVIDE PAID FAMILY LEAVE TO MALE AND
FEMALE EMPLOYEES?
In 1993, the Family and Medical Leave Act was passed and became law in this country.
As explained in Gendered Lives, the act states that, under certain conditions, employers must
give employees up to 12 weeks of leave for family issues and medical problems. Your text also
notes that there are some limits to the Act. Specifically,
1.
The law does not apply to employers who have less than 50 workers.
2.
Not all workers in 100+ worker companies are eligible for family and medical leave.
Employers may designate certain workers as “essential personnel” who cannot be granted
leave. Criteria for this designation are unclear.
3.
To qualify for leave, an employee must have worked at least one year and a minimum of
1,240 hours a year and not be in the top 10% of the company’s salary levels.
4.
Nothing in the law requires that employers pay full or partial salaries to workers who take
family and medical leave. Obviously, employees who have fewer resources are less likely
to be able to afford to take an unpaid leave.
Other developed countries have more generous family leave policies and other countries
typically pay full or partial salaries to employees who take leaves. In the United States
businesses have argued that they cannot afford to pay for family leaves—that doing so would be
prohibitively costly.
Currently there are efforts to expand the 1993 Act. Some of the efforts are legislative
attempts to lower the ceiling on company size so that businesses with fewer than 50 or more
employees would need to provide family and medical leave. Other efforts in the private sphere
focus on increasing the number of men who take family leaves so that men and women can
participate more equally in raising children. And many people think that paid family leaves
should be provided to all qualified employees. They reason that if other countries can afford it,
so can the United States. Further, they argue, paid family leaves are in the best interests of the
whole society because parental involvement with children strengthens families, which, in turn,
strengthens the society.
Where do you stand on this issue? Do you think that all employers should be required to
provide paid family leave to employees? As you think about the issue, visit the websites listed
below and consider the prompts that follow.
The U.S. Department of Labor has a website that offers information on the current
Family and Medical Leave Act. To learn the specifics of this Act, visit the site at:
http://www.dol.gov/esa/whd/fmla/.
Do you think it is the employer’s responsibility to pay for leaves employees take to care
for children or other family members? Is family leave different than other benefits, such as
medical insurance and disability leave that employers provide to employees?
Women who work outside of the home are far more likely than men who work
outside of the home to take family leave to take care of newly born or adopted
children. Yet research demonstrates convincingly that fathers and mothers are
both important to children. Should fathers be encouraged or required to take