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Chapter 14
Language
Goal: To understand how to use language effectively
Overview: This chapter discusses how to develop common ground, build audience interest,
adapt to an audience’s level of understanding, build speaker credibility, and use language
that is appropriate to the specific situation.
Learning Outcomes
14-1 Explain how oral style differs from written style.
14-2 Use appropriate language in your speeches.
14-3 Choose clear and specific language that helps the audience understand and remember
your ideas.
14-4 Choose vivid language that helps the audience see and experience your ideas.
Key Terms
Alliteration Analogy Antithesis
Assonance
Common ground
Generic language
Irrelevant association
Jargon
Marking
Metaphor
Nonparallel language
Onomatopoeia
Oral style
Personification
Proximity
Repetition
Rhetorical figures of
speech
Rhetorical structures of
speech
Sensory language
Simile
Slang
Speaking appropriately
Speaking clearly
Specific language
Timeliness
Verbal immediacy
Vivid language
Vocalized pauses
Figures and Tables
Figure 14.1 The Semantic Triangle
Chapter Outline
Action Step 5
Practice oral language and delivery style
I. Oral style
A. Oral style refers to how we convey messages through the spoken word
B. An effective oral style differs quite a bit from written style, though when giving a
speech your oral style is still more formal than everyday talk. Your goal is to adapt
your language to your purpose, the audience, and the occasion
C. Four primary characteristics distinguish an effective oral style from an effective
written style:
1. An effective oral style tends toward short sentences and familiar language
2. An effective oral style features plural personal pronouns
3. An effective oral style features descriptive words and phrases that appeal to the
ear in ways that sustain listener interest and promote retention
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4. An effective oral style incorporates clear macrostructural elements
II. Speaking appropriately
A. Speaking appropriately means using language that adapts to the needs, interests,
knowledge, and attitudes of your listeners and avoiding language that might alienate
anyone
B. Verbal immediacy describes language used to reduce the psychological distance
between you and your audience
C. Relevance: adapting the information in the speech so that audience members view it
as important to them
1. Establish timeliness: show how information is useful now or in the near future
2. Establish proximity: show a relationship to personal space
3. Demonstrate personal impact
D. Common ground: the background, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and
philosophies shared by audience members and the speaker
1. Use personal pronouns: refer directly to the one speaking, spoken to, or spoken
about (you, us, we, our)
2. Ask rhetorical questions: phrase questions to stimulate a mental response rather
than an actual spoken response from the audience
3. Draw from common experiences: present personal experiences, examples, and
illustrations that exhibit what you and the audience have in common
E. Speaker credibility: the confidence an audience places in the truthfulness of what a
speaker says
F. We demonstrate linguistic sensitivity by choosing words that are respectful of others
and by avoiding potentially offensive language
1. Generic language uses words that apply only to one sex, race, or other group as
though they represent everyone
2. Nonparallel language is a term that describes when terms are changed because
of the sex, race, or other group characteristics of the individual
3. Dirty jokes and racist, sexist, or other “–ist” remarks may not be intended to be
offensive, but if some listeners are offended, you will have lost verbal immediacy
4. Appropriate language avoids profanity and vulgar expressions
G. Cultural diversity
1. When you address an audience composed of people from ethnic and language
groups different from your own, you should make extra effort to ensure that you
are being understood
2. When the first language spoken by audience members is different from yours,
they may not be able to understand what you are saying because you may speak
with an accent, mispronounce words, choose inappropriate words, and misuse
idioms
III. Speaking clearly
A. Choose specific language, or language that clarifies meaning by narrowing what is
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understood from a general category to a particular item or group within that
category
B. Using familiar terms is just as important as using specific words in public speeches
1. Jargon is the unique technical terminology of a trade or profession that is not
generally understood by outsiders
2. Slang refers to nonstandard vocabulary and nonstandard definitions assigned to
words by a social group or coculture
C. Sometimes, the word we use may not have a precise synonym. In these situations,
clarity can be achieved by adding details or examples
D. Vocalized pauses are unnecessary words interjected into sentences to fill moments of
silence
IV. Speaking Vividly
A. Vivid messages use language that is vigorous, bright, and intense
B. Sensory language appeals to the senses of seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and
feeling
C. Rhetorical figures of speech make striking comparisons between things that are not
obviously alike to help listeners visualize or internalize what you are saying.
Rhetorical structures of speech combine ideas in a particular way
1. Simile: a direct comparison of dissimilar things
2. Metaphor: a comparison that establishes a figurative identity between objects
being compared
3. Analogy: an extended metaphor
4. Alliteration: the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words that are
near one another
5. Assonance: the repetition of vowel sounds in a phrase or phrases
6. Onomatopoeia: the use of words that sound like the things they stand for
7. Personification: attributing human qualities to a concept or an inanimate object
8. Repetition: restating words, phrases, or sentences for emphasis
9. Antithesis: combining contrasting ideas in the same sentence
Movies
Movies and movie clips can be used to help students grasp concepts. Clips can be shown in
class, or movies can be assigned as homework. Following the movie clips, ask students
written or oral questions. These questions should address pertinent concepts, thereby
actively engaging students in discussion.
Power of Speech (English File: Using the Power of the Language) (1998)
1. What techniques are many of the speakers on this video using to adapt verbally to their
audiences?2. Where and in what way does seriousness play a role in these
speeches?3. To be persuasive, these speakers established credibility with their
audiences. How did they build and maintain that credibility? Would their speeches
have been effective without that credibility?
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Bad Words (2014)
Rated: R (language, brief nudity, crude and sexual content)
Synopsis: Even though Guy Trilby possesses a photographic memory, he is without a high-
school education, which makes him eligible to participate in spelling bees intended for
children. As he steamrolls his junior competition on his way to the national championship,
he befriends a young Indian-American contestant, and through their relationship the movie
explores the power of words individually, in context, and as meaningful language.
Questions for discussion
1. Describe the ways in which Guy violates conventions of linguistic sensitivity. What is the
effect of him doing so on how you feel about the characters? On the plot?
2. How do Guy and Chaitanya use language to find a common ground with each other?
Additional suggested movies: Mr. Holland’s Opus (1996) (audience adaptation); Norma
Rae (1979) (Reuben Warshovsky’s address to plant workers on unions: verbal adaptation)
Diverse Voices
Public Speaking Patterns in Kenya
by Ann Neville Miller
One of the major differences in adapting to different groups is understanding their
expectations and their reactions to your words. In this excerpt, Ann Neville Miller describes
the different purposes of public speaking in Kenya and how those purposes influence how
Kenyan speakers adapt their words to the expectations of their audiences.
Much public speaking in the United States is informative or persuasive in purpose;
ceremonial occasions for public speaking are less common. This is due, in part, to the stress
that mainstream U.S. culture places on informality. The average Kenyan, in contrast, will
give far more ceremonial speeches in life than any other kind of speech. These may be
speeches of greeting, introduction, tribute, and thanks, among others. Life events, both
major and minor, are marked by ceremonies, and ceremonies occasion multiple public
speeches.
This means that, unlike the majority of people in the United States, who report that they
fear speaking in public, possibly even more than they fear death, for most Kenyans, public
speaking is an unavoidable responsibility. For example, when a Kenyan attends a church
service or other event away from home, he or she will often be asked to stand up and give
an impromptu word of greeting to the assembly. In more remote areas, where literacy rates
are low and there is little access to electronic media, this word of greeting also can serve an
informative purpose because the one who has traveled often brings news of the outside
world. The harambee, a kind of community fund-raising event peculiar to Kenya, is
characterized by the presence of both a guest of honor and various dignitaries of a stature
appropriate to the specific occasion, all of whom are likely at some point to address the
gathering. Weddings and funerals overflow with ceremonial speeches; virtually any relative,
friend, or business associate of the newly married or deceased may give advice or pay
tribute. Older members of the bride’s family, for example, may remind her how important it
is to feed her husband well, or warn the groom that in their family men are expected never
to abuse their wives, but to settle marital disputes with patience. Even the woman selected
to cut the cake expects to give a brief word of exhortation before performing her duty. The
free dispensing of advice, a hallmark of Kenyan wedding celebrations, would be out of place
at most receptions in the United States, where the focus of speeches is normally more on
remembrances and well-wishing.
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In fact, when it comes to marriage, speech making begins long before the actual
wedding day, at bridal negotiations where up to 40 or 50 people from the two families
attempt to settle on a bride price. At these negotiations especially, but also in other
ceremonial speeches, “deep” language replete with proverbs and metaphors is expected.
The family of the man may explain that their son has seen a beautiful flower, or a lovely
she-goat, or some other item in the compound of the family of the young lady and that they
would like to obtain it for their son. In a negotiation of this type that the author recently
attended, the speaker for the bride’s relatives explained that the family would require 20
goats as a major portion of the bride price. Because both parties were urban dwellers and
would have no space to keep that many animals, the groom’s family conferred with each
other and determined that the bride’s family really wanted cash. They settled on what they
considered to be a reasonable price per goat, multiplied it by 20, and presented the total
amount through a designated spokesperson to the representative of the bride. The original
speaker from the bride’s family looked at the money and observed dryly that goats in the
groom’s area were considerably thinner than those the bride’s family were accustomed to!
This type of indirect communication, the subtlety of which affords immense satisfaction and
sometimes amusement to both speaker and listener, is a form of the high-context
communication described by [Edward T.] Hall. A full appreciation of the speech requires
extensive knowledge of shared experiences and traditions.
Excerpted from Ann Neville Miller, “Public Speaking Patterns in Kenya.” In Larry A.
Samovar, Richard E. Porter, & Edwin R. McDaniel, eds., Intercultural Communication: A
Reader (11th ed., pp. 238–245). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2006.
Discussion and Assignment Ideas
I. If you can tell during your speech that your audience’s level of understanding on a topic
is not what you predicted (based on nonverbal feedback that indicates confusion), what
should you do? Why? How?
II. Quotes: These can be used to introduce topics, questions, or perspectives, or gain
individual opinion. Providing students with a quote and prompting them to write or
reflect on their personal feelings about the quote can help to spark discussion and
interest. Suggested prompts may include “Define this concept in your own words”; “Do
you agree with this statement? Explain”; “What text material can be used to support or
refute this idea?”
Think like a wise man but communicate in the language of the people
—William Butler Yeats
Make sure you have finished speaking before your audience has finished listening.
—Dorothy Sarnoff
III. If you are speaking to a multicultural audience, how can you incorporate the variety of
perspectives represented in the audience? Consider common ground, audience interest,
audience level of understanding, audience attitude toward you as speaker, audience
attitude toward your speech goal, and visual adaptation. Could such attempts at
adaptation be perceived differently than you intended? Provide an example.
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Chapter Activities
14.1: Timeliness
Purpose: To provide students with practice in making material timely for a given
audience
Time: 20 minutes
Process: Write the following lists of topics and audiences on 3 x 5 cards, using a
colored card for audiences and a card of a different color for topics. Divide
students into groups of three. Have each group select an audience card and a
topic card. Ask students to discuss how to make their topic timely for their
audience type. (Some of the audience-topic combinations are a stretch but
should highlight for students the need for timeliness.) After five minutes of
discussion, ask groups to trade audience cards and have another discussion
about timeliness. After five more minutes, ask them to trade again for a final
discussion. Then ask the whole class to discuss the following questions:
• Did the five-minute discussion periods allow you to complete this
activity satisfactorily? Why or why not?
• How would you gather further information about your audience to
enable more complex decision-making regarding timeliness?
• Did you rely on stereotypes in your discussion?
Topics
raising chickens life in the rain forest
chocolate is good for you backpacking
bearing stress stamp collecting
World War I campus parking
gangs divorce
shoeing a horse eat healthful to live longer
avoiding traffic citations poverty in the United States
public transportation the Sixties
Audiences
fifth graders Lions club members
math professors members of the local Y
physicians members of the local Big Brothers Big Sisters
pregnant women your city’s Chamber of Commerce
college students recent immigrants
small business owners military officers
farmers politicians
wealthy CEOs local gay/lesbian activist alliance
14.2: Audience Adaptation and Cultural Considerations
Purpose: To enable students to process difficult speech situations involving audience
adaptation, stereotyping, cultural differences, perception, and ethnocentrism
Time: 20 minutes
Process: Bring enough strips of colored paper to class for each student to have four
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strips, each strip a different color: red, green, blue, and yellow. Ask students
to write brief responses to the following color-coded statements on the
matching color-coded strips (i.e., write down your response to the “red”
statement on the red strip). Ask them to frame their ideas using concepts
from the textbook.
Red: Your audience shares your proposition, but many of them perceive you
in terms of a racial or sexist stereotype.
Green: Your audience shares your cultural background, but many of them
have negative stereotypes about the cultural group you are asking them to
support.
Blue: Your audience is multicultural, and their attitudes toward your topic are
incredibly varied.
Yellow: Your audience is multicultural, supportive of your proposition to act
on the issue, but in great cultural discord among themselves.
Collect the strips of paper, dividing them by color. Place the students in four
different groups fired, green, blue, and yellow) and distribute the appropriate
colored strips to each group. Ask each group to create a graphic organizer for
the responses given to their statement. Provide guidance by explaining that
their organizer should depict symbolically the number of times a particular
response is given, the perceived importance of specific responses, and the
relationship among the responses. Each group should then draw their
organizer on large sheets of paper, the red group using a red marker, the
green group using a green marker, and so on. Once the organizers have been
created and taped to the walls, facilitate a discussion of the responses. (See
Part Two of this manual for suggestions about how to facilitate a difficult
discussion.)
14.3: Cultural Differences in Public Speaking
Purpose: To help students understand the importance of evaluating the cultural
standards of a “good” speech in the Western European tradition, and to
expose students to a speaker whose culture or subculture differs from the
dominant U.S. model
Time: 45 minutes
Process: Invite a guest speaker from an under-represented group on your campus to
present a short speech in your class regarding multicultural interaction. Many
campuses have a multicultural education center or various student unions
with speakers available for classes. Discuss the nature of the assignment with
the speaker prior to the presentation to gain his or her permission to discuss
the speech in light of the following questions. If desired, the speaker may
stay for the interactive discussion session. After the speech is over, conduct a
class discussion of the following:
1. What was the function of this speech? As a result of this speech, do you
feel drawn closer to the speaker? Did the speaker create common ground?
Is this a person with whom you can identify? Why or why not?
2. What might be the impact of the speaker’s message on others? Could this
speech be uncomfortable to some people? Could a hurtful message
eventually bring needed change? If so, why? Is comfort a necessary
variable for effective public speaking?
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3. Were you able to relate this speech to your own life? If so, how? If not,
why not?
4. Do you feel the speaker adapted to this audience? If the speaker were in
the audience for your speech, would you have thought to adapt your
message?
5. What cultural assumptions have been brought into question for you, if
any?
6. In what ways has this speech made you rethink what it means to adapt to
an audience?
14.4: Career Speech and Audience Adaptation
Purpose: To enable students to tailor a speech for a specialized audience
Time: 7–9 minutes per student
Process: Give students the following instructions for an in-class speech:
Select a career you think you might like to pursue. Determine an occasion for
which you would be giving a speech in this career. Define your audience for
this speech, and then plan a speech to give in class, using your classmates as
your made-up audience. Here are some examples of careers and related
speech topics:
High school football coach: Your team is losing, and you need to give them
a motivational presentation at half-time.
Kindergarten teacher: You are explaining to your students how to tell time.
Lawyer: You are giving your summation to the jury at a murder trial.
Social worker: You are presenting a workshop on family conflict
management to women who have been in abusive relationships.
Nurse: You are teaching newly diagnosed diabetics about their disease.
You are required to have three sources, one of which should be an interview
with a person currently in the career you’ve chosen. If the information you
get from your interview cannot be incorporated into your speech but does
assist you with how to give the speech, include that information in your
bibliography.
Write introductory remarks for your speech to provide your audience with
information regarding your career and their role as your made-up audience.
Your professor will read these remarks to the class before you begin. Here are
a couple of examples:
• Welcome to the Arizona Arrow Spa. Your personal health and fitness
trainer, Jan Smith, will be describing the services available here at the spa.
Please give her a warm welcome.
• We understand that you are all concerned about tax preparation
because you have been audited. Robert Jones, a tax accountant, will be
talking to you today about how to prepare for the initial meeting with your
auditor.
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Journal Assignments
Topic and Audience
The text discusses how to build credibility through your audience’s perception of your
knowledge, trustworthiness, and personality. How does your desire to appear credible affect
your topic selection? Make a list of topics and corresponding audiences for which you believe
you could appear credible. Explain your strategy for building credibility.
What Would You Do?
A Question of Ethics
Kendra, I heard you telling Jim about the speech you’re giving tomorrow. You think it’s a
winner, huh?”
“You got that right, Omar. I’m going to have Bardston eating out of the palm of my
hand.”
“You sound confident.”
“This time I have reason to be. See, Professor Bardston’s been talking about the
importance of audience adaptation. These last two weeks that’s all we’ve heard—adaptation,
adaptation.”
“What does she mean?”
“Talking about something in a way that really relates to people personally.”
“OK—so how are you going to do that?”
“Well, you see, I’m giving this speech on abortion. Now here’s the kick. Bardston let it
slip that she’s a supporter of Right to Life. So what I’m going to do is give this informative
speech on the Right to Life movement. But I’m going to discuss the major beliefs of the
movement in a way that’ll get her to think that I’m a supporter. I’m going to mention
aspects of the movement that I know she’ll like.”
“But I’ve heard you talk about how you’re pro–choice.”
“I am—all the way. But by keeping the information positive, she’ll think I’m a supporter.
It isn’t as if I’m going to be telling any lies or anything.”
1. In a speech, is it ethical to adapt in a way that resonates with your audience but isn’t in
keeping with what you really believe? Why or why not?
2. Could Kendra have achieved her goal using a different method? How?
Experiential Assignments
Ethics and Speaker Adaptation
Interview a person who speaks to lots of different groups. Ask the speaker how she or he
adapts the message based on the audience and how much adaptation this speaker
considers ethical. Ask if she or he ever holds back true information so as not to offend
anyone. Write a summary and analysis of what you discovered.
Creating Common Ground
Use the Internet or the resources at your campus library to find the article “A Question of
Real American Black Men,” by Bailey B. Baker, Jr., Vital Speeches, April 15, 2002. Analyze
how this speaker uses personal pronouns, rhetorical questions, common experiences, and
personalized information to create common ground. Write a short essay describing the
conclusions of your analysis.