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only one hour to create a four-hour shift), it leaves no one in the studio to deal with
unexpected glitches or to provide emergency weather updates.
VI. Radio and the Democracy of the Airwaves
• The new pattern of radio ownership:
• Large companies buy several stations in a market.
• They change the formats to make them complementary, not competitive.
• They focus each station at a different niche market.
• The number of low-power FM radio stations nearly doubled between 2014 and 2016. By
2018, more than 2,170 LPFM stations were licensed. LPFM stations are only licensed to not-
for-profit educational organizations, government or nongovernment entities providing public
safety radio services, or federally recognized Native American tribes and tribal organizations.
In 2016, 38 percent of the 1,536 LPFM stations self-identified their formats as being
religious in nature. (See Nancy Vogt, “Number of U.S. Low-Power FM Radio Stations Has
Nearly Doubled Since 2014,” Pew Research Center, September 19, 2016,
http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/09/19/number-of-u-s-low-power-fm-radio-
stations-has-nearly-doubled-since-2014.)
• The mandate that radio serve the “public interest, convenience, or necessity” remains
important. As of 2016:
• Radio reached 91 percent of all consumers (twelve years old and over) every week. (Source:
Radio Marketing Guide and Fact Book for Advertisers,
http://www.rab.com/public/marketingGuide/DataSheet.cfm?id=1)
• People age eighteen and older spent an average of nearly fourteen hours listening to the radio
every week. However, teens (age twelve to seventeen) average just under eight hours of radio
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listening per week. (Source: Radio Marketing Guide and Fact Book for Advertisers,
http://www.rab.com/public/marketingGuide/DataSheet.cfm?id=21)
• UNESCO celebrates “World Radio Day” on February 13 every year “to celebrate radio as a
medium; to improve international cooperation between broadcasters; and to encourage major
networks and community radio alike to promote access to information, freedom of
expression and gender equality over the airwaves. . . . Radio still remains the medium that
reaches the widest audience worldwide, in the quickest possible time.” (website:
http://www.worldradioday.org)
MEDIA LITERACY DISCUSSIONS AND EXERCISES
RADIO LISTENING HABITS
1. Think. Take two minutes to write down answers to the following questions about your radio
listening habits: How much radio do you listen to? When do you listen? How do you access
the radio station? What attracts you to a particular station? If you listen to news, weather, or
traffic, do you trust radio more or less than other sources?
2. Pair. Turn to a neighbor and compare notes. Which radio formats (if any) do you agree on?
What do you think the stations are doing that is “right?” What aspects of radio programming
bother you?
3. Share. Open up the discussion to the entire class. If you could envision the perfect radio
station with the perfect format, what would it be? How would it be funded? Whom would it
serve? What should be the purpose of this radio station in the community?
CENSORSHIP AND TALK RADIO
Considering that talk radio is now one of the most popular formats, discuss the following
questions: Do you listen to talk radio? Why? Should talk-radio hosts be able to say anything they
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want on the radio? Is it important to air all potential issues over the airwaves, even if those issues
might upset some listeners? Are radio talk shows just silly sideshows of extreme views and
shocking behavior, or do they appeal to listeners in unique and significant ways? Do all potential
topics contribute to democracy? What kinds of things shouldn’t be said or discussed on the
radio?
Ask students to consider the effect of the repeal of the Fairness Doctrine on the diversity of
voices on talk radio, and consequently, on political discourse in the United States.
UNDERSTANDING WAR OF THE WORLDS
Ask students about their familiarity with the Mercury Theatre Broadcast of October 30, 1938. Is
it the most infamous radio broadcast of all time? Have you ever heard the dramatization?
• Listen to the opening segment of the broadcast. (The CD included in The Complete War of
the Worlds book has the entire broadcast. I usually play about ten minutes of the broadcast,
beginning about ten minutes into the recording.)
• Ask students to write a response to the questions, “What skills are involved in being a radio
listener? In other words, how is ‘reading’ or interpreting the radio program different from
‘reading’ a television program?” Discuss the differences.
• Ask students to comment on what elements would have been familiar to the listeners and
what elements contributed to the panic.
• Were these people media illiterate? Or did the Mercury Theatre broadcast play against
people’s media literacy? (That is, you had to know something of the conventions to make it
“real.”) Note that this broadcast was the subject of one of the first important studies of media
effects (Cantril, Hadley, Hazel Gaudet, and Herta Herzog. The Invasion from Mars: A Study
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in the Psychology of Panic. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1940.) You might also
want to point out that two of the three authors were female scholars.
—Developed by Matthew Smith, Wittenberg University
(Note: If you don’t have a chance to play a recording of War of the Worlds in class, here’s a brief
description of the broadcast:
The production was scripted in the form of fake news flashes that repeatedly interrupted musical
recordings. The first news flash reported strange activity sighted on Mars. The next interruption
was an urgent message saying a meteor had crashed near Grover’s Mills, New Jersey. Then came
a “live” report from the New Jersey site saying that it wasn’t a meteor at all but, rather, Martians
with death-ray guns who had just killed one thousand people. A subsequent “eyewitness report”
described the Martians as “weird creatures streaming from a huge silver cylinder and burning
everything that lay in their path.” The report stopped suddenly “for reasons beyond the station’s
control.” Then news bulletins from across the country started streaming in, telling listeners that
the National Guard had been called out, the U.S. military was rapidly mobilizing, and the White
House had declared a state of national emergency. Even though there had been a strong
disclaimer at the beginning of the broadcast saying that the story was only make-believe, people
crowded into churches, highways became jam-packed with cars, and many people put on gas
masks. In one unlucky town in Washington State, an actual power failure magnified the frenzy
and horror.)
FORMAT SPECIALIZATION
This Critical Process exercise examines radio-group ownership and format specialization. Assign
each radio station in your market to individuals or small groups in the class. Listen to the same
hour (e.g., 4:00 to 5:00 P.M.) during the day for each station.
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1. Description. Create a chart that breaks down the selected hour into a program log. Describe
what you hear, including music, news, deejay chatter, ads, community announcements,
station promotions, and contests. Describe the style of these broadcasts as well as the number
of minutes devoted to each category. Who is the target audience? Who owns the station? Do
the ad and promotion styles match the general flavor of the station?
2. Analysis. Compare program logs and other station information with classmates. What
patterns emerge? Do the stations owned by the same radio group sound similar in certain
ways (e.g., advertisers, newscasters, promotions)? Are there any locally owned stations, and
do they program differently? Which (if any) stations provide the best local news, events, and
weather information? Which (if any) stations feature local artists? What did you like best of
what you heard? What did you like least?
3. Interpretation. According to FCC rules, radio stations are trustees of public airwaves. Basing
your opinion on the limited hours you listened, do you think these stations are doing a
responsible job of serving the public? If some radio stations in a single market have similar
formats, is that bad? Is there enough station differentiation in your market? What audience
segments are not targeted by the radio stations in your market? Why not?
4. Evaluation. Does the radio industry give listeners what they want, or does it give listeners
what the industry wants? (Radio remains “the number-one source of music discovery”
according to Nielsen; see “2014 Nielsen Music U.S. Report” at
http://www.nielsen.com/content/dam/corporate/us/en/public%20factsheets/Soundscan/nielse
n-2014-year-end-music-report-us.pdf). Do you think radio companies are being responsible
stewards of the public airwaves? What are some changes you’d like to see in radio?
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5. Engagement. Listeners have the right to provide written comments about a station’s
programming to both radio stations and the FCC. Commercial stations are required to keep
letters and e-mails received from the public in their public file, which must be open for
inspection at every station by any citizen during regular business hours. Listeners also have
the right to comment on a radio (or TV) station’s license renewal process (which usually
happens every eight years). Citizens may file a petition to deny a license, an informal
objection, or positive comments with the FCC. For details on how to do so, see “The Public
and Broadcasting” document at http://www.fcc.gov.
NPR VERSUS COMMERCIAL RADIO NEWS
Pre-Exercise Question: Why should taxpayer money support NPR (through the CPB) in the
United States when it could probably be supported solely by corporate sponsorship and private
donations?
In this Critical Process exercise, you’ll compare newscasts of NPR’s Morning Edition or All
Things Considered and those of their affiliates with morning and afternoon newscasts of
commercial radio stations in the same market.
Find your local NPR affiliate (check http://www.npr.org to find a nearby station) and a local
news/talk/information station (usually on the AM dial). Compare and contrast the stations’
coverage by recording and listening to the same hour on the same day during the morning or
afternoon “drive time.”
1. Description. Develop a profile of a full hour of news from each station, including the total
time of news versus commercials/promotions/corporate sponsorships, the number and length
of news stories, and the news story topics.
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2. Analysis. What are the major differences between the news programs of the NPR affiliate and
those of the commercial news stations? Look for patterns.
3. Interpretation. Do you think that being nonprofit and publicly supported makes a difference
in the content and length of a station’s news stories? Were longer stories more
comprehensive and thoughtful? What do the differences mean?
4. Evaluation. Morning Edition and All Things Considered draw three to four million listeners a
day, more than twice the number of people who read the Wall Street Journal or USA Today.
Based on these news programs, does NPR deserve some kind of public-funding mechanism
that could keep it free of advertising? Do you think there is a difference in the kind of news
and delivery provided by a noncommercial program versus a commercial one?
Suggestion: For a class project, students should work in pairs, with each responsible for
recording a newscast at the same time.
5. Engagement. If you’re interested in the kind of journalism found on NPR, you may want to
consider becoming involved in the Next Generation Radio training project. Cosponsored by
NPR and a number of journalism and media organizations, the project enables budding radio
journalists to report and produce their own radio stories.
TRACKING RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE RADIO INDUSTRY: A SEMESTER-
LONG CRITICAL PROCESS EXERCISE AND PAPER
In this exercise students discover the most recent developments in the industry, and they become
familiar with industry trade sources. The paper they produce is due in sections, which
correspond with the steps in the Critical Process.
1. Description. Read industry trade sources to get a sense of the main issues affecting the radio
industry. Look at the websites of industry trade associations and professional societies.
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(Links to websites of some industry trade sources are given in the Classroom Media Sources
below.) Take notes on topics that have multiple stories or mentions in the current year. What
issues or developments in the industry have received a lot of recent attention, discussion, or
commentary in industry sources? (Focus only on information from the current year—and
only from trade sources.) Write a one-page synopsis of the information you found about
current topics in the industry. Cite your sources properly.
2. Analysis. Look for one development or pattern that has received significant attention on trade
sites and from trade journalists in the current year. Choose one specific trend, and write one
or two pages with details about the information you found about that trend. Continue to track
news about your topic as the semester progresses. Cite sources properly.
3. Interpretation. What does the trend mean for the state of the industry? Is it evolving? How?
What does it tell you about media in general at the current time? What might it say about our
culture or our society? Can your information help us interpret the role of the industry in our
lives? Write up your interpretation in a five-page paper. (The first page should be a synopsis
of the trend, with proper citations.) You might not have to provide information from your
sources for the next four pages because this section is your interpretation of the trend. (Save
any ideas you have about whether the trend is “good” or “bad” for the Evaluation step of the
Critical Process.) Cite any sources properly.
4. Evaluation. Is the trend “good” or “bad?” For the industry? society? culture? democracy? us?
What do you think might happen in the future?
5. Engagement. Are there any actions you can take (related to your trend and the industry)?
Possibilities include posting your views on social media, creating a petition, contacting
people in the industry to see what they think of your interpretation and evaluation, or going
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to an industry event if any are held nearby. (This step need not be required if students are not
motivated to take action.)
Note: This exercise works well if each step of the Critical Process is due two weeks after the
prior step is due. Limiting students to only trade sources and only information from the current
year helps keep them on track. Your institution’s librarians should be able to provide students
with information on how to access industry trade sources.
CLASSROOM MEDIA RESOURCES
LAUNCHPAD FOR MEDIA & CULTURE: launchpadworks.com
Radio: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow (2009, 4:09 minutes). Scholars and radio producers
explain how radio influences other media and how radio has adapted to today’s audience and
media landscape. Featuring Richard Campbell, Dino Corbin, Charles Osgood, and Sedge
Thompson.
Streaming Music: “Bad Blood” (2015, 4:04 minutes). The music video for Taylor Swift’s hit
song “Bad Blood” features a variety of celebrity guests and high production value.
Talk Radio On Screen (2009, 22:25 minutes). Sean Hannity is a conservative political
commentator who hosts a syndicated talk radio show. He also hosts a television show on Fox
News. In this clip, he discusses political issues with filmmaker Michael Moore.
VIDEOS/DVDS/CDS
The Agronomist (2004, 90 minutes). This documentary, directed by Jonathan Demme, examines
the life and assassination of Haitian radio journalist and human rights activist Jean Dominique.
Demme uses a combination of historical footage of Haiti’s troubled past and interviews with
Dominique and his wife, Michelle Monta, highlighting the unique role of radio technology in
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remote areas of underdeveloped countries, as well as the personal danger that crusading
journalists face.
The Complete War of the Worlds (2001). This book with accompanying audio CDs tells how
Orson Welles and the Mercury Theatre drove 1.2 million people into a panic over something that
never happened. Available used at Amazon.com.
Invasion from Mars (1988, 25 minutes). This program illustrates how the increased reliance on
radio as an information and news medium set the stage for the panicked reaction to the War of
the Worlds radio broadcast. The video includes interviews with Orson Welles as well as with
people who remember listening to the broadcast. In discussing the dominance of radio during
that period, this video also includes elements of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s fireside
chats and Edward R. Murrow’s and H. V. Kaltenborn’s newscasts from Europe right before
World War II.
Ninety-three-year-old Public Radio Station WNYC thrives by embracing constant change (Dec.
7, 2017), 10:09 minutes). Peter Weingard, CMO of New York Public Radio explains how new
technology and willingness to experiment with formatting has helped WNYC grow its audience.
Available at https://youtu.be/zU9CqIKbfdg.
WEB SITES
Billboard Magazine: http://www.billboard.biz
History and Old Time Radio: http://www.old-time.com/otrhx.html
National Association of Broadcasters: http.//www.nab.org
National Public Radio: http.//www.npr.org
Nielsen: http.//www.nielsen.com
Pandora: http.//www.pandora.com
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Radio Advertising Bureau: http.//www.rab.com
Radio Days: http.//www.otr.com
Radio Ink: http.//radioink.com
Radio Locator: http.//www.radio-locator.com
FURTHER READING
Abel, Jessica, and Ira Glass. Radio: An Illustrated Guide. Chicago. WBEZ Alliance, 1999.
Cantril, Hadley, Hazel Gaudet, and Herta Herzog. The Invasion from Mars: A Study in the
Psychology of Panic. Princeton, NJ. Princeton University Press, 1940.
Douglas, Susan J. Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899–1922. Baltimore. Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1987.
Fornatale, Peter, and Joshua E. Mills. Radio in the Television Age. Woodstock, NY. Overlook,
1980.
Halper, Donna L. Invisible Stars: A Social History of Women in American Broadcasting.
Armonk, NY. M. E. Sharpe, 2001.
Hilmes, Michele, and Jason Loviglio, eds. Radio Reader: Essays in the Cultural History of
Radio. New York: Routledge, 2002.
Lewis, Tom. Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio. New York: HarperPerennial, 1991.
McChesney, Robert W. Telecommunications, Mass Media, and Democracy: The Battle for the
Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928–1935. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Mott, Robert L. Radio Sound Effects: Who Did It, and How, in the Era of Live Broadcasting.
Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1993.
Sterling, Christopher H., and John M. Kitross. Stay Tuned: A Concise History of American
Broadcasting. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1990.
