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PART THREE – SOCIAL AND GROUP PROCESSES IN
ORGANIZATIONS
Chapter Nine - Communication
Chapter Overview
Communication, a form of social interaction, is the glue that holds organizations together—it is not an
understatement to say that if communication within an organization is consistently ineffective that
organization is not likely to survive. Communication is related to higher levels of employee engagement,
which are related to higher shareholder return and increased market value.
To be effective leaders, managers must have good communication skills, particularly during tough
economic times. Communication is also critical to employee motivation.
In this chapter, we will discuss the communication process, some of the basic issues in interpersonal
communication, methods of communicating, and how information technology (IT) and the Internet have
influenced organizational communications. We also discuss some specific communication skills, present
some barriers to effective communication, and provide ways to overcome those barriers. This chapter
should give you a good understanding of the communication process and help you to become a more
effective communicator.
Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Describe the communication process, explain the difference between one-way and two-way
communication, and identify barriers to effective communication.
2. Identify and discuss the major communications skills used by managers.
3. Discuss communication media and describe the richness of each.
4. Describe different forms of organizational communication.
Real World Challenge: Communicating Values at Nokia
Summary: Nokia Corporation, based in Finland, is a world leader in large-scale telecommunication
infrastructures, mobile phone technology development and licensing, and online mapping services. The
company realizes that its values are no longer in the forefront of employees’ minds. Nokia needs to
modernize and re-energize its values among employees.
Real World Challenge: How can Nokia effectively establish and communicate its core values to its
employees?
Real World Response: To engage employees in identifying and living the company values, Nokia began
holding a worldwide series of two day workshops called Value Cafes to discuss what values Nokia should
have to achieve its strategic goals and how to best communicate them. Nokia also held on online jam
session to put the new values and strategies on the Internet and to get employees to discuss, chat and
debate them. Nokia understands that the ownership of values lies with its employees. By involving them
in defining and capturing the company’s values, employees became actively involved and engaged.
Chapter Outline
I. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication is the process of transmitting information from one person to another to create a
shared understanding and feeling.
Communication does not mean agreeing, only that information is transmitted and received as it was
intended.
Figure 9.1 illustrates the communications process.
The six parts of the model of the communication process are:
1. Encoding occurs when the message sender converts a thought, idea, or fact into a message
composed of symbols, pictures, or words.
2. The message is the encoded information being sent.
3. The channel is the medium used to send the message to the receiver.
4. Decoding is the interpretation and translation of the message back into something
understood by the receiver. The decoded information is hopefully the same as the
information the sender intended to communicate, but this is not always the case.
5. Feedback is a check on the success of the communication. Repeating or paraphrasing the
original message, asking for clarification, and asking if your conclusion is correct are forms
of feedback.
6. Noise is anything that blocks, distorts, or changes in any way the message the sender
intended to communicate.
In other words, in the communication process the sender translates (encodes) information into
words, symbols, or pictures and passes it to the receiver through some medium (channel).
The sender then receives the message, retranslates (decodes) it into a message that is hopefully the
same as what the sender intended.
Noise can enter anywhere in the process, making the message received different from the one the
sender intended.
Feedback creates two-way communication that helps to check on the success of the communication
and ensure that the received message was accurate.
Unfortunately, though, problems can arise at any point during the communication process that make
the message ultimately received different from the one sent. These barriers can come from the
sender or receiver, the organization, or noise. We will discuss some of these barriers next.
A. Nonverbal Communication
The way we communicate is more important to a message’s meaning than the words we
actually say.
Nonverbal communications are not spoken or written.
1. Body Language
Body language is a body movement such as a gesture or expression that conveys
information to others.
Research suggests that in a typical face-to-face communication exchange 7 percent of the
total message is conveyed by the words, 38 percent of the total message is conveyed by
vocal intonation, and 55 percent of the total message is conveyed by facial and body
expressions.
For communication to be effective and meaningful, then, all three parts of the message need
to be congruent. If any of the three parts are incongruent, conflicting messages are being
sent.
Consciously controlling your body language is as important a managerial skill as knowing
how to interpret others’ body language.
Controlling your nonverbal signals and vocal tone ensures that you reinforce your intended
message.
If you want people to see you as a leader, stand up straight, make eye contact, and smile—
those signals project confidence and energy.
2. Verbal Intonation
Verbal intonation is the emphasis given to spoken words and phrases. For example, the
simple words, “May I speak with you?” can be interpreted very differently if said in a
cheery, upbeat tone versus a strong or angry tone.
When body language is inconsistent with the spoken message, receivers are more likely to
interpret your body language as the “true meaning.”
B. One-Way and Two-Way Communication
In one-way communication, information flows in only one direction. The sender communicates
a message without expecting or getting any feedback from the receiver.
Once a receiver provides feedback to a sender, the sender and receiver have engaged in two-
way communication.
C. Task Interdependence
When one person or unit is dependent on another person for resources or information to get
work done, communication needs increase.
There are three types of interdependence, illustrated in Figure 9.2.
Pooled interdependence is when employees work independently and their output is combined
into group output.
Sequential interdependence, like in an assembly line, requires tasks to be performed in a certain
order.
Reciprocal interdependence requires constant communication and mutual adjustment for task
completion, such as a cross-functional research and development team, or an event-planning
team, and creates the highest potential for conflict.
D. Barriers to Effective Communication
A number of potential barriers to effective communication exist. Table 9.2 summarizes some of
the most common barriers that can interfere with the accurate communication of a message.
1. Selective Perception
Selective perception occurs when we selectively interpret what we see based on our
interests, expectations, experience, and attitudes rather than on how things really are.
Selective perception leads us to receive only the part of a message that is consistent with
our expectations, needs, motivations, interests, and other personal characteristics.
2. Misperception
Misperception occurs when a message is not decoded by the receiver in the way the sender
intended.
A misperception can occur because the sender’s body language is inconsistent with the
sender’s words, or the receiver selectively perceiving favorable parts of the sender’s
message, or even poor listening skills.
3. Filtering
Filtering occurs when people receive less than the full amount of information due to the
withholding, ignoring, or distorting of information.
Filtering can happen when a sender manipulates information so that the receiver is more
likely to perceive it in a favorable way.
4. Information Overload
Filtering can also occur when a receiver has too much information.
When the amount of information available exceeds our ability to process it, we experience
information overload.
When faced with too much information, we have to use some sort of filtering strategy to
reduce it to a manageable amount.
Filtering is essential to managers because it helps to reduce the amount of noise in the
communication process. Effective filtering amplifies relevant and accurate information and
minimizes the rest.
5. Organizational Barriers
Organizational barriers to communication come from the hierarchical structure and culture
of the organization.
Numerous hierarchical levels or department specializations can make communication
across levels and departments difficult or even interfere with communication.
Some organizational cultures encourage open communication while other cultures promote
a limited sharing of information.
6. Cultural Barriers
Words and gestures can mean different things in different cultures.
In some cultures, people tend to say what they mean and to mean what they say, leaving
little to subjective interpretation. These low-context cultures rely on the words themselves
to convey meaning.
People in high-context cultures rely on nonverbal or situational cues or things other than
words to convey meaning.
Communicating in high-context cultures like Asian or Arab cultures requires more trust and
a greater understanding of the culture. In high-context cultures, managers tend to make
suggestions rather than give direct instructions.
In low-context cultures like Germany, Switzerland, or North American cultures,
communication tends to be more direct and explicit.
7. Noise
Noise is anything that blocks, distorts, or changes in any way the information the sender
intended to communicate. It can enter anywhere in the communication process and interfere
with the successful transmission and reception of a message.
Interruptions, the sound of engines or machinery, dim computer screens, small font, or a
receiver’s headache are all physical barriers that create noise.
Loss of transmission occurs when an Internet connection goes down, phone lines are full of
static, or a videoconference link is dropped.
Ambiguity is another source of noise in communication.
Ambiguity of meaning occurs when the receiver is not sure what the sender meant.
Ambiguity of intent means the receiver is uncertain about the message’s consequences.
Jargon, or technical language, can also create ambiguity when the receiver does not
understand it.
Semantics are another barrier that introduces noise into communications.
Words mean different things to different people. Asking for feedback helps the sender
ensure that his or her intended meaning is the same as the one ultimately received.
Some companies rely on technology to minimize the effects of these barriers to effective
communication.
Global Issues: Cultural Differences in Communication
Summary: Verbal and written communication vary around the world. The communication process is
filtered through language, environment, technology, social organization, social history, authority beliefs,
and nonverbal communication. Problems arise when those from one culture cannot understand the other
person’s communication practices, traditions, and thinking.
People perceive their own behavior as logical, and generalize their cultural values to everyone. For
example, if your culture values promptness, you assume that everyone values it. However, in Hispanic
cultures, not being on time is culturally acceptable. The concept of correct and incorrect is blurred.
Managing cultural differences is important in cross-cultural teams because of the potential to reduce
information sharing, create interpersonal conflict, or both. For example, Western norms for direct
communication often clash with Asian norms of indirect communication. Effective managers understand
how the perception of a message changes depending on the viewpoint of those communicating. Business
relations are enhanced when employees are trained to be aware of possible communication difficulties
and conflict across cultures.
II. COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Communicating effectively is an important managerial skill, and a skill critical for effective
leadership.
Many barriers exist to good communications that are beyond your control, but improving your
communication skills can help to overcome these barriers.
A. Listening Skills
Listening is not the same as hearing. Hearing is passive; listening is an active search for
meaning.
Active listening plays an important role in communication and is especially important for
effective leadership. It requires becoming actively involved in the process of listening to what
others are saying and clarifying the meaning of messages if they are unclear.
Both parties should engage in active listening until it is clear that each understands the final
message.
Being an active listener requires concentration. Quickly compare the verbal and nonverbal
messages to see if the messages are contradictory and to make sure you really understand the
message being sent. Then reflect the message back to the sender, repeating the message in your
own words.
Active listening requires the receiver to tune out noise and concentrate on the message.
Ways to be an active listener include asking open-ended questions and sending the other person
feedback to check that you understand the message. Making eye contact, nodding occasionally,
and showing appropriate nonverbal behaviors also show the sender that you are listening.
Experts generally offer the following suggestions for being a good listener:
Pay close attention and make logical connections
Give nonverbal evidence you are listening, including leaning toward the speaker,
maintaining eye contact, and not fidgeting
Give verbal evidence you are listening, including giving constructive feedback,
paraphrasing, and questioning for clarification and refinement
Show respect by not interrupting, use an inclusive, friendly tone
Follow up on unusual or inconsistent communication cues from the speaker to
determine the real message
Use what the speaker says or infers to determine their motives, self-interest, and
expectations
Offer honest, clear, timely, respectful, and relevant acknowledgement of what is said
B. Writing Skills
Effective business writing is not just about grammar and punctuation—the style and tone also
have to be appropriate for the audience.
Business writing needs to be professional and direct, and often needs to be persuasive.
Always proofread your business communications, even if they are fairly short, and ensure that
spelling and grammar are correct.
Experts suggest these guidelines for effective business writing:
Write to express, not to impress
Back up your assertions
Write for your audience
Edit and revise
Format for readability
Use graphic aids and pictures where appropriate
Write with energy and conviction, avoid passive voice
Because email falls in between a phone call and a letter, email etiquette can be difficult. Table
9.3 provides some suggestions for effectively using email at work. Training can be effective in
enhancing communication efficiency.
C. Presentation Skills
Managers need effective presentation skills to present proposals to supervisors and to
communicate with other managers and groups of subordinates at once.
Here are some suggestions for making effective presentations:
Speak up and speak clearly
Quickly achieve rapport
Channel nervous energy into an enthusiastic delivery
Move freely and naturally without pacing, look at your audience
Minimize notes, use them as ‘thought triggers’ only
Highlight key ideas
Watch the audience for signs of comprehension or misunderstanding
End with a bang
D. Meeting Skills
Because they lead groups and teams, another way that managers often communicate is through
meetings. In addition to wasting time and money, poorly led meetings are often a source of
frustration.
Meeting effectiveness may be improved when people come prepared to meetings, an agenda is
used, meetings are punctual (start and end on time), purposes are clear, and there is widespread
participation.
Leading meetings requires skills in organizing, eliciting input from meeting participants, and
conflict management.
Here are some suggestions for running effective meetings:
Have a good reason to meet in the first place, or do not meet
Have an agenda clearly stating the purpose of the meeting and key steps to satisfy that
purpose
Send the agenda in advance so participants know what is expected of them
Be fully prepared for the meeting
State a time frame at the beginning of the meeting, and stick to it
Require that participants come prepared
Keep participants focused on the agenda items
Follow up on any outside assignment made to meeting participants
