Communicating for Results: A Guide for Business and the Professions (Cheryl Hamilton)
Explain the meaning of persuasion and the different types of persuasive presentations
Briefly describe each of the four factors/theories necessary to make your presentation
persuasive and pinpoint at least two practical tips each factor/theory provides the
persuasive speaker, including the four methods of citing evidence in a presentation
List the steps for preparing a persuasive speech and describe each of the following
persuasive organizational patterns: claim-reasons, causal, problem-solution, criteria
satisfaction, comparative advantages, and motivated sequence
Identify three characteristics found in successful team presentations and suggest several
tips for handling questions and answers (Q&A)
Communicating for Results: A Guide for Business and the Professions (Cheryl Hamilton)
c. Latitude of rejection (
other positions that are completely unacceptable and trigger negative feelings.
d. Speakers can determine where the audience is on the LA-LN-LR continuum and
focus arguments toward such listeners.
i. T
in position more than two steps away from the audience average belief.
3. The inoculation theory compares inoculating a person against opposing ideas with
inoculating a person against a disease.
a. Someone who has never heard negative arguments will be susceptible to them.
1. Logos (Greek for reason) is the evidence and logic of the message.
2. Ethos is the credibility of the persuader.
3. Pathos addresses the psychological needs of the listeners.
4. Key opinions are held by key members of the audience.
C. Persuasive Factor #1 is the evidence and logic of the message (logos).
1. Evidence and logic have specific definitions in persuasion.
2. Research has identified a number of findings on logic and evidence that can be
applied in persuasive presentations.
a. Listeners have difficulty identifying logical vs. illogical messages and high-
quality vs. low-quality evidence, so identify your evidence as the former.
to the audience.
i. Citing firsthand experience is perceived as more trustworthy and persuasive
than only using high-prestige sources, so also share personal knowledge if you
have it and the audience trusts you.
3. Apply the four methods of using evidence.
a. Method 1 is using assertion plus evidence plus source.
4. For speaking outside the organization, use method 3 or method 4.
a. Use method 3 because listeners do not know you personally, you can enhance
5. For speaking within the organization, use method 2 or method 4.
a. Use method 2 because time is precious, particularly to management, and
listeners will request additional verification if needed.
b. Use method 2 because extensive documentation is not needed if the audience is
6. Present one or both sides of the argument under specific conditions.
a. Present only your side of the argument under specific conditions.
i. Listeners already agree with the proposal and have a well-developed belief
system (avoid the boomerang effect of presenting counterarguments and
7. Inoculate the audience by presenting both sides of the issue and refuting or
minimizing the opposing arguments (while avoiding fallacious reasoning).
8. Avoid using fallacious reasoning, which is illogical and unacceptable
argumentation.
a. The ad hominem fallacy entails attacking the person rather than the argument.
b. The ad populum fallacy entails arguing that because everyone knows that an
1. Credibility (believability, inspiring confidence) depends on a number of factors.
a. The importance of credibility for persuasion is evidenced in business decision
d. Objectivity attaches to a speaker who is open-minded, impartial, and unbiased
in viewing evidence and arguments and discusses all viewpoints.
e. All other things being equal, organizational rank in the organization affects
credibility (but perhaps less than the other four elements).
4. Speaker credibility can be improved.
a. Have a credible expert or manager introduce you.
b. Support assertions with recent carefully documented evidence and credible
5. Credibility, fraud, and the Internet are interwoven topics.
a. Persuasive messages with emotional appeal result in instant ethos.
b. Fraud victims pay little attention to message substance if the sender appears to
vi. Scarcity is based on the greater value attached to a scarce item.
E. Persuasive Factor #3 addresses the psychological needs of the listeners (pathos).
1. It is not evidence unless the audience thinks it is evidence; if the audience relates
more personally to evidence, persuasion is more likely.
2.
which can operate simultaneously but usually progress from fulfilling one goal to
addressing the next.
a. Physiological needs are the most fundamental goal (if unfulfilled, pain, physical
3. Persuasion is enhanced by crafting messages to stress potential losses (rather than
4. Audience involvement is one of the best and most persuasive ways to relate to
audience needs and can be facilitated in many ways.
1. In every group, members look to a key person or persons for advice.
2. To persuade the group, persuade the opinion leaders.
3. Identify key people and their opinions and then direct arguments toward them.
A. Step 1: Analyze your expected listeners and needs (the same as preparing for an
informative presentation).
1. Plan the presentation to interest key opinion leaders.
2. Show how the proposal will meet one or more listener needs.
4. Realize that persuasive position statements are different from informative purpose
statements.
C. Step 3: Determine your initial and plan to increase it if necessary.
1. If listeners know or have heard of you, initial credibility can add to persuasiveness.
2. If initial credibility is negative, supplement it in one of many ways.
1. The claim (or reasons) pattern presents reasons or claims for believing a particular
fact, holding a particular belief, or advocating a particular plan.
a. This pattern is similar to the topical pattern, but the language is persuasive
2. The causal pattern uses cause-effect reasoning to persuade and ends with a solution
or call to action.
3. The problem-solution pattern presents a problem, discusses ways to solve or reduce
it, offers additional benefits of the solution, and/or recommends a course of action.
a. This pattern can take several forms.
4. The comparative advantages pattern is normally used when the audience agrees
there is a problem but does not agree on the solution.
5. The criteria satisfaction pattern also is used when the audience agrees there is a
problem but does not agree on the solution
a. Begin with a summary of the problem.
6. The motivated sequence pattern is used when advocating a policy change or
specific action.
a. This pattern is similar to the problem-solution-action pattern.
7. A persuasive topic likely could be organized by any of the six patterns, depending
1. Review Chapter 12 on supporting materials and visual aids.
2. Review Chapter 11 on introductions and conclusions.
vividly picturing the future.
c.
appeal for action should be issued (i.e., an explicit request for audience action).
G. Step 7: Review your to ensure it is ethical.
1. Ethical problems are more likely to occur in persuasive rather than informative
2. Ethics are defined as the moral principles that guide judgments about things such as
good and bad, right and wrong (Chapter 1).
3. The issue of whether the ends justify the means poses difficult ethical questions.
a. Consider whether the possibility of getting caught has a role in ethics.
b. Although ethics can be situational at times, recognize that real persuasion does
Communicating for Results: A Guide for Business and the Professions (Cheryl Hamilton)
H. Step 8: Practice your presentation to gain confidence.
1. Work for a dynamic yet conversational delivery (Chapter 11).
A. Team presentations are more common in some organizations than individual
presentations.
1. Team presentations are more common in larger organizations with larger budgets
and high stakes.
2. Team presentations can be successful with two or three speakers and a limited
budget.
1. They are well organized and well supported and have smoothly flowing content.
2. They are creative and professional and use visual aids well.
3. They are smooth and polished, with a dynamic team performance.
F. Several types of team presentation formats are available.
1. A panel is a small group of well-informed people discussing a problem, current
situation, or topic of interest in front of a larger group (or recorded for later use).
2. A problem-solving panel is similar to a simple panel, with a few exceptions.
a. The group follows the basic problem-solving procedure (Chapter 9) to discuss a
3. A symposium is a small group of experts, also in front of a large group.
11) to the symposium and also introduces the members.
4. A problem-solving symposium-panel is similar to the symposium, with two
exceptions.
5. A forum allows all audience members to participate following a panel (panel–
forum) or a symposium (symposium-forum).
a. A forum may involve a simple question-and-answer period, general discussion,
3. Correcting problems early in the planning process avoids the need for last-minute
changes and associated new visuals.
4. Storyboards are informal planning tools that each team member can use to visually
5. Visual aids (Chapter 12) should be consistent in appearance throughout the
presentation, so one member or a graphic arts department should prepare the final
versions (or the members should agree on a template).
1. The team coordinator should have past team experience, speaking experience, and
leadership capabilities and preferably is a subject-matter expert (SME).
a. Team leaders should be objective in critiquing and directing presenters.
b. The team coordinator handles the introduction and conclusion, introduces
members, provides transitions if members do not, and directs the question-and-
2. The procedures for question-and-answer sessions and open discussions should be
planned in advance.
a. Anticipate possible questions and identify the member with the most expertise
to answer questions related to specific topic areas.
3. Buzz groups are a type of forum that allows a large number of people to actively
participate in small groups, usually following a panel or symposium.
a. Ideally, the chair announces the upcoming buzz groups so that audience
members can prepare.
the opinions of key opinion leaders.
C. Persuasive presentation preparation entails analyzing listeners and their needs, writing a
purpose statement, planning how to increase credibility, researching the topic, choosing
the best way to present the evidence, selecting an organization, planning verbal and