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of the Concerto for Orchestra.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss Bartók’s interest in folk music and the influence of folk music on his compositions.
2. Discuss Bartók’s use of traditional forms in the Concerto for Orchestra.
3. Discuss some of Bartók’s innovations in the use of orchestral instruments.
4. Bartók at Columbia.
5. Bartók as teacher: Mikrokosmos.
6. Bartók’s six string quartets.
DMITRI SHOSTAKOVICH
Objectives
With only a brief discussion of Shostakovich’s early life, the section concentrates on the conditions artists
faced under Communism in the Soviet Union with his opera Lady MacBeth of the Mtsensk District as an
example. His falling out of favor with the Communist Party is recounted, and the second movement of his
most popular work, the Fifth Symphony, which restored him to favor, is studied.
Suggestions
1. The text states that Shostakovich’s “enormous talents as pianist and composer were
immediately recognized,” an assertion that can be corroborated by a consideration of his First Symphony.
Mentioned as a graduation piece, it should be noted that Shostakovich had already completed the piano
course, and that this work was for the completion of the composition course, both accomplishments
achieved before the age of twenty. It might be interesting for students, many of whom are probably past
that age, to hear some excerpts from that work.
2. Lady MacBeth of the Mtsensk District (1934) is based on a story by Nikolai Leskoff, wherein
Katerina Izmaylova is sentenced to hard labor in Siberia for murdering her father-in-law, husband, and
young nephew in order to become her husband’s sole heir and marry her lover. Omitting some of the
gruesome details of the original, in which Katerina is portrayed as a cruel, murderous woman,
Shostakovich instead depicts her as clever, gifted, and interesting, making her the victim of the brutal
class life of the old regime in whose miserable surroundings she is placed by the accident of birth.
According to the composer’s own explanation, he tried to “interpret” the story’s events and characters
from the “Soviet point of view.” As mentioned in the text, the work was highly successful until
denounced by Pravda as “chaos instead of music” and withdrawn from the stage. Slightly revised and
renamed Katerina Izmaylova, the opera was hailed in 1963 as a masterpiece of theatrical realism.
Interesting comparisons to contemporary operas, both by Soviet and other composers, may be
made. These would include such operas as Janáček’s Kát’a Kabanová (1921), The Makropulos Affair
(1926), and From the House of the Dead (1930), Prokofiev’s Love for Three Oranges (1919) and Fiery
Angel (1923), and Berg’s Wozzeck (1922). Was Lady MacBeth so radically different from other stage
works at the time, or were the Soviet authorities simply condemning all modernity through Shostakovich?
Besides recordings of the complete Lady MacBeth, there are excerpts available in a suite.
3. Having been restored to favor in 1937 with his Fifth Symphony, Shostakovich was once again
condemned in 1948 for “formalistic distortions and anti-democratic tendencies alien to the Soviet
people.” He began to write in a more accessible idiom for public use, and a more abstract style for his
personal satisfaction, often withholding the latter works from performance, waiting for a more amicable
environment. To illustrate the former and to show how politics can influence the arts, consider playing
excerpts from his Song of the Forests. This seven-movement oratorio glorifies the plan for the
reforestation of the windswept deserts of central Russia following World War II. This charming idealistic
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work won the Stalin Prize in 1949, leading to Shostakovich’s restoration to favor. It should be compared
with the first violin concerto, composed at the same time, but withheld from performance until after
Stalin’s death.
4. The text mentions the famous NBC broadcast of the Seventh Symphony. Apparently not
everyone found favor in the work: Bartók’s son stated that his father was listening to the performance
while he was working on the Concerto for Orchestra. Bartók apparently found one of its themes so
ludicrous and vapid that he decided to burlesque it in the fourth movement of the Concerto (Intermezzo
interrotto). Since Bartók and the Concerto are discussed, perhaps some comparison of the differences in
approach and techniques of the two composers would be of interest. One might also discuss broadcasting
at the time, and the state of radio technology, for live audiences normally find performances of the
Seventh Symphony overwhelming experiences.
5. The text only discusses the first movement of the Thirteenth Symphony, but consider
examining the complete work. The five Yevtushenko poems are quite strong, although their criticism of
the Stalinist past is couched in general terms. Babi Yar, the first movement, is perhaps the strongest, but
consider also the bitingly satiric second movement, Humor.
6. It would be impossible to illustrate all of Shostakovich’s works, but some mention should be
made of the many songs, the film music, his Festive Overture (a staple at orchestral pops and band
concerts), the concertos, and the string quartets. The stature of the latter may be seen by the fact that,
similar to the Beethoven and Bartók cycles, there are now performances of all fifteen Shostakovich string
quartets.
7. Before turning to the second movement of the Fifth Symphony, consider the work as a whole.
The exciting first movement, in sonata form, is followed by the playful scherzo, discussed in the text. The
highly lyrical Largo provides calm and contrast before the onslaught of the fiercely dynamic finale,
referred to by Bernstein as “How Dry I Am in minor.”
The text refers to the second theme of the scherzo as a “grotesque waltz.” Compare this section
with one of the first uses of the waltz in the symphonic repertoire (also a second movement), the
Symphonie fantastique. How has the waltz changed in 107 years? Is Shostakovich purposely burlesquing
the most popular dance of the nineteenth century in this movement?
8. The video Fantasia 2000 has the ballet The Steadfast Tin Soldier choreographed to the music
of Shostakovich’s Second Piano Concerto.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the environment in which artists lived under Communism in the Soviet Union.
2. Describe the doctrine of “socialist realism.”
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of state subsidy of the arts.
4. Shostakovich’s fifteen string quartets: worthy successors to Beethoven, Brahms and Bartók?
5. Satire, humor, and the grotesque in the music of Shostakovich.
6. Shostakovich and Prokofiev: similarities and differences.
MUSIC IN AMERICA
Objectives
This section briefly surveys the development of music in America (excepting African American music
and rock) from colonial times through the middle of the twentieth century. Musical forms discussed are
psalms, band pieces, dances, marches, songs, and symphonies. The text emphasizes the importance of
bands in nineteenth-century America. Inevitably, European romanticism made its way into American
cities (the establishment of symphonies) and private homes (playing songs on the piano was an extremely
popular activity). As in Europe, American nationalism took root and a search for an “American sound”
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began, resulting in works by Charles Ives, Aaron Copland, John Cage, Philip Glass, and John Adams.
Suggestions
1. The text notes the importance of psalms and congregation singing in colonial America. In
1770, the first publication of original choral music by an American-born composer came out: The New-
England Psalm-Singer by William Billings. For context, point out to students that this was the same year
that Beethoven was born; Mozart was only fourteen years old! Ask students to research William Billings
and the kind of life he lived. Have them compare it to the life of European composers at the same time.
You can find a few recordings of Billings’s music to play for them.
2. John Philip Sousa, the March King, is a good way to introduce students to the band music
tradition of the United States. They have almost certainly heard Stars and Stripes Forever, the national
march of the United States (there are many available recordings of this piece you can play for students,
including performances on YouTube). You may want to discuss with students the history of band music,
its influence on American life, and its present manifestation at college sporting events. Perhaps your
university is known for its marching band.
3. You may wish to discuss the popularity of American songs and how they compared to their
European counterparts, the art songs. Discuss with students how songs by the famous Stephen Foster
(such as Susanna or Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair) are similar or different to songs by Schubert or
Schumann (e.g. The Erlking or The Trout). Ask students what elements feel American to them? You may
point out to them that American songs, such as those by Foster, are influenced by the many immigrant
cultures: Irish, English, Scottish, as well as ever-present German and Austrian.
4. In-depth discussions of the various twentieth-century American musical styles occur in later
chapters. For now, you might briefly illustrate the enormous variety of styles by playing a medley of
several different twentieth-century American pieces. For example, you could excerpt music from an Ives
symphony, a Joplin rag, a Bessie Smith blues, a bebop tune, a Broadway song, a fusion jazz piece, a rock
song, and a Philip Glass work. You can discuss with students the reasons so many different types of
music developed, such as the diversity of American culture, the result of immigration from all around the
world.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe music in colonial America.
2. Discuss the importance of band music in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
3. The popularity of songs and music publishing.
4. Describe how nationalism manifested in American music.
5. Dvoák’s visit and promotion of American folk music.
6. The multiplicity of musical styles that emerged in the twentieth century.
CHARLES IVES
Objectives
Charles Ives’s career, from his boyhood interests in music and baseball through his years at Yale and his
eventual emergence as a successful insurance broker, forms the subject matter of the first part of this
section. The musical elements that contributed to his original style are described, and the section ends
with a discussion of Putnam’s Camp, Redding, Connecticut, from Three Places in New England.
Suggestions
1. The recordings include the second of Ives’s Three Places in New England, Putnam’s Camp,
Redding, Connecticut. Reminding the students that it was composed the year before the famous 1913 Rite
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of Spring riot, but not performed until 1930, urge them to listen to the work with contemporary, not
nineteenth-century ears, or, as Ives put it, “get up and use your ears like a man [woman]!” Considering
that new Americans will probably not be familiar with Yankee Doodle or The British Grenadiers, it would
probably be helpful for the students to sing a stanza of each to familiarize themselves with some of the
basic materials that Ives uses in this work. If the class is already familiar with these songs, or can learn
them easily, divide the students into two or more groups and have them sing the songs polyphonically.
Try the same key at first, and, if that succeeds, do it again polytonally. The students will not only have a
lot of fun doing this, they will see how challenging twentieth-century techniques can be and have a new
understanding and appreciation of the music.
2. An astonishing amount of music by this once-neglected composer is now available, although
scores may be harder to locate. Among the works that could be sampled, in addition to the complete
Three Places in New England, are Central Park in the Dark, Symphony Holidays (which contains the
Fourth of July movement), and his Variations on “America” for organ or in orchestral/band transcription.
Another work, The Unanswered Question, is mentioned in the text as depicting “a search for the meaning
of life.” How does Ives approach this problem? In discussing this work, it would be helpful to have the
score available to quote from Ives’s preface. Stage the work for the students, most of whom have seen
only traditional concerts, if that. The trumpet should be separate from the flutes, as Ives requests, as if in
fact asking a question. The responders, the flutes, should be separate, but related to the action. The
strings, the silences of the Druids, can be whatever analogy you wish to involve: eternity, timelessness, or
the bottomless sea.
3. Some consideration should be given to Ives’s choral and vocal music, as well as the above
instrumental compositions. Many of the two hundred songs will prove interesting and representative, but
a personal favorite is The Greatest Man; its one and a half minutes of listening time are well rewarded.
Gregg Smith’s arrangement of Romanzo di Central Park is another delight that always evokes most
favorable responses in class. As for choral music, Psalm 90, which Ives himself felt to be one of his finest
works, is magnificent. Choral parts are quite reasonable for this work, and essential for classroom use.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the constituents of Ives’s style.
2. Describe the sources of the preexistent material used in Putnam’s Camp, Redding, Connecticut.
3. Describe the program of The Unanswered Question, and how it is musically conveyed.
4. Ives as essayist: Essays before a Sonata.
5. The Concord Sonata.
6. Ives and the insurance business.
GEORGE GERSHWIN
Objectives
Gershwin’s career is traced from his boyhood on the lower east side of New York’s Manhattan island,
through his discovery and study of music, the days of song plugging, his first Broadway success, to his
death at the age of thirty-eight at the height of his fame. Some of his Broadway musicals are mentioned,
along with some of the many hit songs. Porgy and Bess, “his most extended work,” is discussed, as are
his active social life and interest in art. The section closes with a discussion of the famous Paul Whiteman
concert at Aeolian Hall in 1924 and the work Gershwin composed for it, the Rhapsody in Blue.
Suggestions
1. It was mentioned in the discussion on Charles Ives that Gershwin has been advocated as one of
the most influential American composers of the century. Considering that Duke Ellington, Aaron
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Copland, and Leonard Bernstein (discussed in later sections) are also considered major figures in
twentieth-century music, the proposal is open for healthy discussion.
2. Gershwin had a tremendous influence on later jazz performers and composers, but this
discussion might better be left for the unit on jazz. With his brother Ira, the Gershwins also greatly
affected the American musical theater. While revivals are unfortunately infrequent, songs from their
many shows do remain current, and bear discussion in class. So too do his orchestral works, such as the
ever popular American in Paris, the Cuban Overture, and the Piano Concerto. The Three Preludes for
Piano are frequently performed, and even the charming Lullaby for string quartet, his first “classical”
piece, has been revived with great success. For many, the songs are the most lasting, and should be
discussed. For some idea of the scope of Gershwin’s creativity, see his works list in the New Grove
Dictionary of American Music.
3. The text briefly mentions Porgy and Bess, and it is strongly recommended that some excerpts
be played in class, or assigned for outside listening. It took fifty years for this “folk opera” to become
accepted as a true opera in every meaning of the word and to reach the Metropolitan Opera, but it is now
generally recognized as a masterpiece. The recording by the Houston Opera, which added many sections
omitted from earlier recordings, is highly recommended, and will be a refreshing experience to those who
know the work only through the older musical theater and film (rather than operatic) versions.
4. Before discussing the Rhapsody in Blue, especially since jazz will probably not yet have been
covered, it would help to place the work in perspective by introducing some basic jazz concepts at this
time, especially syncopation and ornamentation. Some discussion of dance bands and their music would
be helpful. Ellington’s C-Jam Blues was introduced in the first section of the text, and a comparison of
this work with the Rhapsody, composed eighteen years earlier, should be most instructive. It should be
noted that Paul Whiteman was not the first to treat jazz seriously in concert form, since James Reese
Europe’s Clef Club Symphony was active in this area even before World War I. Whiteman, however,
being white, had greater success at the time, and did have the foresight to commission Gershwin and
others for new works for his Aeolian Hall concert.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe and illustrate the jazz elements found in Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue.
2. Discuss the contributions of Paul Whiteman and his band to the main stream of American
music, and Gershwin’s role in that contribution.
3. Compare the original Grofé arrangement of Rhapsody in Blue with his later symphonic version.
4. Gershwin and the American musical theater.
5. Porgy and Bess: opera, folk opera, operetta, or just another Broadway musical?
6. Jazz elements in Gershwin’s “classical” works.
7. Classical elements in Gershwin’s “jazz” works.
8. Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue: how rhapsodic, how blue?
WILLIAM GRANT STILL
Objectives
Still is presented as a major figure embodying the ideals of the Harlem Renaissance of 1917-35.
Discussions of his early life, musical training, and work as a performer and arranger of popular music
follow. Still’s significant African American “firsts” are mentioned. Singled out for study is the third
movement of his Afro-American Symphony complete with Listening Outline.
Suggestions
1. Recognized as the “Dean of Afro-American composers,” Still deserves full recognition for his
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work. He exemplifies the African American’s struggle to be recognized in cultivated art forms as well as
the vernacular ragtime and jazz. In addition to the “firsts” listed in the text (first AA composition
performed by a major symphony orchestra, first AA to conduct a major orchestra, first to have an AA
opera performed by a major opera company, first AA opera on television), mention should be made of his
many scores for radio, television, and film, his 25 major works for symphony orchestra (five
symphonies), his six operas, four ballets, works for chamber ensemble and band, piano suites, and songs.
His daughter makes his music available through her firm William Grant Still Music (see
http://www.williamgrantstill.com).
2. Perhaps some time should be taken to discuss the Harlem Renaissance, since it is mentioned in
the text. Because of the number of important poets, essayists, and novelists in Harlem (New York) such as
Langston Hughes, W. E. B. Du Bois, Zora Neale Hurston, and James Weldon Johnson, it was considered
an emergence of “the New Negro.” While the Renaissance was primarily a literary movement, there were
musicians in New York at the time, such as Harry Burleigh, J. Rosamond Johnson (James Weldon’s
brother), Will Marion Cook and Francis Hall Johnson, who were very active and shared many of the same
goals. Paul Lawrence Dunbar had collaborated with Will Marion Cook on Broadway musicals at the turn
of the century, and his poetry was well known to the composers at the time. For students who may not be
familiar with black dialect, perhaps some time should be spent on reading some of his poems, or those of
Langston Hughes. A good start would be the poems that Still used to preface his Afro-American
Symphony.
3. To set the milieu for the African American elements in Still’s compositions, one can go back to
Harry Burleigh and the National Conservatory of Music in New York. Antonin Dvorák had been brought
from Europe to serve as director, and he was fascinated by the music he found in America. Burleigh
studied with Dvorák, but also spent many hours copying manuscripts and singing spirituals for him. In
1895, Dvorák gave hope and encouragement to American composers, then under European domination,
by stating that the “inspiration for truly national [American] music might be derived from the Negro
melodies or Indian chants.” Coming from such a renowned and well-respected composer, it was quickly
taken to heart by many critics, authors, and composers, among them Still.
4. The Afro-American Symphony, Still’s best-known work, has a subtitle for each of its four
movements: Longings, Sorrows, Humor, and Aspirations. Still wanted it to be an American work,
demonstrating “how the blues, so often considered a lowly expression, could be elevated to the highest
musical level.” To critics who found the work “straightforward with no pretense of profundity,” he
responded “the harmonies employed in the Symphony are quite conventional except in a few places. The
use of this style of harmonization was necessary in order to attain simplicity and to intensify in the music
those qualities which enable the hearers to recognize it as Negro music.” Some years later, Aaron
Copland would modify his style, “writing more accessible works for a larger audience.” Again, Still was
ahead of his times. The third movement, Humor deserves repeated hearings. Note especially what the
text calls “a syncopated counter-melody that recalls Gershwin’s song I Got Rhythm.” While the text states
“it is not certain whether one composer influenced the other,” there are those who firmly believe that Still
was calling attention to the theme that he felt Gershwin took from him. Why else would this counter-
melody appear only once, stated forcibly in the horns?
Questions and Topics
1. Describe and illustrate the (popular) (jazz) (classical) elements in William Grant Still’s Afro-
American Symphony.
2. Describe the life of an African American musician/composer before the Civil Rights
Movement.
3. William Grant Still’s African American “firsts.”
4. Still’s Afro-American Symphony: an early example of third stream music?
5. Still’s contemporary African American composers: Harry Burleigh, Will Marion Cook, R.
Nathaniel Dett, Francis Hall Johnson, J. Rosamond Johnson, and Clarence Cameron White, among others.
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AARON COPLAND
Objectives
In the biographical portion of this section we learn of Copland’s early years in Brooklyn, his period of
study in France, and his cultivation of the jazz idiom for a few years on his return to the United States.
Copland’s stylistic changes and his output are surveyed, and the elements of his style defined. The section
ends with a discussion of the ballet Appalachian Spring, with a Listening Outline provided for the seventh
section.
Suggestions
1. Copland’s career is unusual in that, at various times, he has chosen to strike out consciously in
new directions. Thus the author has divided his output into works that were jazz-inspired, those in which
popular elements predominate, and those—such as the serial pieces—that were aimed at a limited and
highly sophisticated audience. Appalachian Spring represents Copland’s “popular” style. Selected
excerpts of his Music for the Theater and his Piano Concerto, written shortly after his return to America,
can serve to illustrate his brief flirtation with jazz. Copland’s adoption of serial procedures is evident in
the Piano Quartet (1950), based on an eleven-note row, and in later works such as the Piano Fantasy and
Connotations for Orchestra. See if the students can define those elements of Copland’s style that are
common to all phases of his work. Which elements are peculiar only to the jazz works? Only to the serial
works?
2. Appalachian Spring is fully discussed in the text, but consider also discussing Martha Graham
and the differences between modern and classical ballet techniques. The music is available both on record
and film in its original version for chamber orchestra, but the suite for full orchestra has become more
popular.
3. The text mentions Copland’s name as having become synonymous with American music and
hopefully this also will be discussed. His ballets, and what makes them “American,” could be illustrated
briefly. His Fanfare for the Common Man can be mentioned as an example of music’s use in
psychological warfare as well as an example of Copland’s skill, for are any of the other nine fanfares
commissioned of the great composers of the time ever heard today? A Lincoln Portrait deserves at least
mention in class, if time is unavailable for performance.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the music of Copland’s “jazz period.”
2. Describe the music written by Copland in the aftermath of the great depression.
3. Describe Copland’s extra-compositional musical activities.
4. Copland as film composer.
5. Jazz in the music of Aaron Copland.
6. Copland and serialism.
7. Copland and music for high school ensembles.
ALBERT GINASTERA
Objectives
Ginastera is presented in this section as a prominent Latin American composer of avant-garde musical
techniques. We learn of his early interest in percussive sounds, his education at the National Conservatory
in Buenos Aires, his study with Aaron Copland, and his marriage to an Argentinean cellist that “renewed
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everything, even his music.” His operas are discussed, as well as other works that reflect his Argentine
heritage. The section ends with the Final Dance: Malambo from the Estancia Suite, Op. 8a (1941).
Suggestions
1. The text states that the roots of his ballet scores could be found in his interest in playing on
pots and pans as a child. Encourage the students to identify the rhythmic elements of his “early style” as
they listen to Final Dance: Malambo from the Estancia Suite.
2. The malambo is a gaucho dance characterized by stomping feet. The complexity of Ginastera’s
rhythms interprets this dance and is similar to the dance rhythms found in America from Leonard
Bernstein’s West Side Story. You may wish to listen to this recording now and compare the rhythmic
structure of these two works.
3. Ginastera was influenced by other composers, including Stravinsky and Copland. In what ways
is this ballet similar to Copland’s Billy the Kid?
4. Ginastera’s music was divided into three stylistic periods: (1) his early works that showcased
his Argentine heritage in more conventional forms and sounds; (2) his middle works that added more
intense rhythms and twelve-tone techniques to his Argentine style; and (3) his later works (from 1958 on)
that reflected the use of more avant-garde techniques. Consider listening to a recording of his Piano
Concerto No. 1, (written in 1961) and determine how his style changed while still maintaining Argentine
flavor.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the Argentine influences in Ginastera’s music.
2. Discuss the effect of Copland’s teaching on Ginastera.
3. Reasons for the ban on Ginastera’s music.
4. Ginastera and serialism.
MUSICAL STYLES SINCE 1945
Objectives
This section surveys changes in musical styles since 1945. Among the topics considered are the increased
use of the twelve-tone system, the growth of serialism and its applications to musical parameters other
than pitch, chance music, minimalist music, musical quotation and the return to tonality, electronic music,
the “liberation of sound,” mixed media, and new concepts of rhythm and form.
Suggestions
1. The opening paragraph of this section could easily be applied to contemporary movements in
the other arts as well, and you may wish to discuss these artists and illustrations in connection with the
relevant musical styles:
• Donald Judd (1928-1994). The text describes Untitled (1984) as “a minimalist sculpture
in three identical parts.” Does this work stretch our conception of the meaning of the word
sculpture? Similarly, is our conception of the word music stretched by the minimalist
composers?
• Helen Frankenthaler (b. 1928). Flood (1967) seems to present the forces of nature, and a
sense of unleashed power, in an atmospheric and dramatic abstraction.
• Jackson Pollock (1912-56), One (Number 31, 1950). One of the originators of “action
painting,” Pollock regarded the act of painting equally as important as the result.
• Bridget Riley (b. 1931), Nataraja (1993). This British artist is considered a master of Op
art.
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• Andy Warhol (1929-1987). Marilyn Monroe (1964) is an example of Pop art, a
controversial though highly influential avant-garde movement in the 1960s. A reaction
against the abstract expressionists, it is characteristic of his work, and is one of a series of
representations of famous personalities.
2. This section can be seen as an introduction to the eight composers and their works discussed in
the next section. It also serves the function of raising some of the many visible and audible trends that
have not otherwise been covered in the text. You may wish to list the ten major developments listed in the
text, and then present examples of each of the ten (but not necessarily in the order listed, asking the
students to identify the style being played). Help them identify differences through perceptive
questioning.
3. You may wish to discuss the philosophy behind the composition of John Cage’s 4'33",
mentioned in the very first section of the text. Regarding his chance music, he explains in his writings
(Silence, London, 1968) that Imaginary Landscape No. 4 was composed by following the rules of I-Ching
(Book of Changes) in tossing three coins six times. The method is quite complex, and does provide a
rationale to chance music that is frequently overlooked or misunderstood.
4. In discussing electronic music, you may wish to consider the text’s references to the
“humanization” of electronic sounds. While adding live performers to taped sounds may be
“humanizing,” would we call adding animal sounds to live performers “animalizing”? This was done by
Respighi in the Pines of Rome (the nightingale in the Pines of the Janiculum), and Hovhaness in And God
Created Great Whales (if you are inclined to modern causes, you may wish to bring in the “Save the
Whales” campaign in connection with the latter).
5. For creative and imaginative sounds from the piano and a new method of notation, consider
Henry Cowell’s The Banshee. Be sure to see his program notes and recorded discussion included in the
recording of his piano work.
6. A major development since 1945 not singled out in the text, but involving all examples listed,
is the evolution of the wind ensemble as a separate medium from the symphonic band. One major work
among many that can illustrate the genre, new methods of notation and sound production, and serve as an
example of the composer’s work is Penderecki’s Pittsburgh Overture. Scores are reasonable in price, and
recordings are available. Another example is John Adams’s Short Ride in Fast Machine, discussed in the
next section. Other examples of each of the trends mentioned are too numerous to include here, so a
logical choice would be a work being performed by your local college or university wind ensemble, with
attendance at the concert strongly encouraged. Unquestionably, the director of the ensemble will be happy
to help in discussing the work, and providing further insight to what can be a very rewarding experience.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the elements of total serialism.
2. Describe the varieties of chance music.
3. Describe the varieties of electronic music.
4. John Cage’s Silence.
5. The Columbia-Princeton electronic music center.
6. Rock and electronic music.
7. Electronic music versus electronic amplification.
8. Minimalism in art and music.
MUSIC SINCE 1945: REPRESENTATIVE PIECES
Objectives
This section presents brief biographical sketches of a few important contemporary composers, and the
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discussion of a representative composition by each.
Suggestions
1. To cover all the composers would probably require more time than available, but you might
wish to spend a few moments on each:
• Cage: Cage is a fascinating personality who should not simply be dismissed as an
eccentric. His pioneering work in creating chance music was discussed in the previous
section. Nor should his influence on other fields be discounted: artistically acclaimed fashion
photographer David Seidner credits Cage as a major influence on his work. Olivia Mattis
(Eastman School of Music) recommends the video I Have Nothing to Say, and I’m Saying It
which encapsulates Cage’s importance in a very entertaining manner, and includes interviews
with Yoko Ono and Laurie Anderson among others. The work grew out of his annoyance
with Muzak, prompting him to compose a work of uninterrupted silence which he at first
intended to name “Silent Prayer.” Cage was apparently intentionally vague about the final
title, commenting that it was not “four minutes, thirty-three seconds,” but 4'33". Cage, after
working with taped sounds, pointed out that it could also be “four feet, thirty-three inches,” or
even “four degrees, thirty-three minutes.” Before introducing his Sonata II from Sonatas and
Interludes, demonstrate some of the techniques used in preparing the piano by means of some
simple bolts, screws, and bits of plastic.
• Varèse: The text discusses Poème électronique, and the work is included in the
recordings. Take a moment to discuss the exhibition for which the work was intended. Those
students who have been to Disneyland or Disney World will recognize the application of Le
Corbusier’s and Varèse’s concept to several of the Disney exhibits.
• Piazzolla: Many students may already know what a tango dance looks like but, to be sure,
try to find an internet clip or video of professional tango dancers. As the national dance of
Argentina, the tango features much improvisation and intense emotion. It may be interesting
to point out that the tango, like the minuet or waltz, originated as a dance. Just as the classical
composers incorporated the minuet into their symphonic compositions, Piazzolla elevated
tango music from mere dance accompaniment into sophisticated concert works. With your
students, compare the dancelike aspects of the minuet, waltz, and tango. What are the
similarities? Differences? Ask the students whether they think Piazzolla’s music is danceable.
Would they consider it avant-garde? (Piazzolla’s music was often considered to be too
dissonant and complicated for the tango genre.)
• Crumb: Just looking at the page from the score of Ancient Voices of Children will suggest
that the music is far from traditional. “From Where Do You Come, My Love, My Child” is
discussed in the text, and is included in the recordings. Take a few moments to discuss the
symbolism of the text, as well as the unusual accompaniment.
• Glass: Take a few minutes to discuss the atom bomb and the possibility of nuclear
destruction. Compare the traditional definition of opera, a play set to music, with Einstein on
the Beach, which has no real plot or character development. Concerning the music, ask the
students what they mean by “minimal.” Since the word has been applied to art forms such as
fashion and the visual arts, how would they describe “minimalism” in dress? Following the
analogy, how would a composer interpret the movement in sound? In what respects might
s/he use a “minimum” of material? Listen to Knee Play 1 and discuss how Glass uses his
materials.
• Adams: The text describes Adams as a postminimalist, so some comparison with Philip
Glass and the minimalists would seem appropriate. How are they similar, how different?
Short Ride in a Fast Machine is discussed, but here is an excellent opportunity to illustrate
the modern development not discussed in the text but mentioned previously, the evolution of
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the wind ensemble.
• Whitacre: It would be a good idea to use this section on Whitacre and his music to
discuss the intersection of music and technology in today’s world. Using the power and far-
reaching capabilities of the Internet, Whitacre has been able to disseminate his music to a
global audience. It might be interesting for students to think about the differences in audience
size during the baroque, classical, romantic, and modern periods. Point out to students that
Bach was writing for a relatively small church audience, Beethoven was focused on a
European audience, while Whiteacre writes for a global audience. How might the size of the
audience affect the composing process? The text discusses Whitacre’s piece, Lux Aurumque,
and the evolution of his Internet Virtual Choir.
2. This section concludes the text’s survey of twentieth-century “classical” music. You might
pause for a while to take stock of the future. Which of the twentieth-century composers discussed in the
text appear to your students to be the most significant? Why? Is it possible to forecast future
developments in an art, based on what seems most significant today?
3. Ask students to conduct a research project on the impact of technology in music creation.
Would they consider computers to be a musical instrument? Tell them to try to find composers and
performers who incorporate technology into their music. What do these musicians have to say about the
use of technology? Have students locate statistics on the different methods of listening (how many people
still buy CDs? mp3s? streaming radio? etc.). What conclusions can the students draw from this
information?
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the techniques and equipment used by John Cage in his prepared piano works.
2. Describe some of the unusual instrumental effects in Crumb’s Ancient Voices of Children.
3. Describe the syncopated rhythms in Piazzolla’s Libertango.
4. Electronic music: its prehistory.
5. Women and music: feminism in the arts.
6. George Crumb and the works of Federico García Lorca.
7. Whitacre’s Virtual Choir.
8. The collaboration of John Cage and Merce Cunningham.
