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VI. THE ROMANTIC PERIOD
ROMANTICISM IN MUSIC (1820-1900)
Objectives
The characteristics of romanticism in the visual arts and literature are described and the achievements of
representative artists and writers summarized in the first part of this section. The following characteristics
of romantic music are then defined, often in relation to their manifestations in the classical period:
individuality of style, expressive aims and subjects, nationalism and exoticism, program music,
expressive tone color, colorful harmony, expanded range of dynamics, pitch, and tempo, and form
(miniature and monumental).
Suggestions
1. The romantic period was marked by an explosion in self-expression. An individual’s
relationship to life and the world became the focus of many works of art. It would be tough to find
musical periods more contrasting than those of the classical and the romantic. In many ways,
Romanticism broke down centuries of tradition and craft. If you believe in mnemonics, you may wish to
help the students with the following comparison:
Romanticism Classicism
Subjectivity Objectivity
Individualism Traditionalism
Nationalism Aristocracy
Emotionalism Emotional restraint
Supernaturalism Realism
Further explanation of these terms may be found in the text.
2. In discussing the general characteristics of the period, you may wish to refer to some of these
artists and works:
• John Constable (1776-1837). One of the major artists of the English landscape tradition,
Constable imparts a poetic melancholy and wistfulness to his works while portraying the
beauty of his homeland. Salisbury Cathedral (1831) has this naturalistic romanticism, and
anticipates the attitudes and methods of the later impressionists.
• Eugène Delacroix (1798-1863). The romantic’s interest in the supernatural comes
through in the rich intensity of color and the contrasts of light and dark in Delacroix’s The
Bark of Dante (1822, also known as Dante and Virgil in the Inferno). Dante and Virgil are
being steered across the lake surrounding the walls of the infernal city of Dis (Roman for
Pluto, the god of Hades) while sinners cling to the boat or try to climb in. Note also the
brilliant renditions of the personalities of Paganini (1831) and Chopin.
• Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840). Der Abendstern (The Evening Star, 1830-35) is
typical of Friedrich’s delight in the vastness of nature. In this romantic vision of the universe,
humans dwarfed by the environment gaze silently at the evening star as the night rests on the
earth. Friedrich loved to portray romantic moods such as meditation, melancholy, or solitude.
He believed that art should be the true language of our emotions, even our piety and our
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prayers. He defended the uniqueness and vulnerability of the artist’s creative subjectivity, and
insisted that the artist be complete within himself, a “temple of individuality.”
• Jean-François Millet (1814-75). One of the Barbizon school of landscape painters,
Millet’s glorification of the French peasant usually caused him to be linked with social
realism. Having himself come from a poor farming family, he knew the hardships of the
peasants, and depicted scenes of rural life in a dignified and sympathetic manner. The
Gleaners (1857) can be compared to the verismo movement of opera: the sharp realistic
portrayal of ordinary people of the working class (in the Marxian sense), subjects considered
dangerous and unsuitable for artistic representation by the middle class public.
• Théodore Géricault (1791-1824). His most ambitious work, The Raft of the Medusa
(1819), created a sensation when first exhibited. Géricault went to great pains to depict the
horrible tragedy as realistically as possible, even to the extent of studying corpses in the
morgue. Fascinated by the destructiveness of nature and mental aberrations, he made studies
of the inmates of mental institutions.
• Joseph Mallord Turner (1775-1851). Turner first gave The Slave Ship (1839) the title
Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying—Typhoon Coming On. It was inspired
partly by an incident Turner had read about: the captain of a slave ship had jettisoned his
human cargo during an epidemic because he was insured against the loss of slaves at sea, but
not by disease. The forces of nature are most effectively used to highlight this emotional and
poignant drama.
Questions and Topics
1. What were the political and social conditions that caused the romantic movement?
2. How did the music of the nineteenth century reflect the romantic composer’s desire for a closer
union between music and the other arts?
3. Discuss some characteristics of romantic literature and painting.
4. Give some examples of musical nationalism and exoticism.
5. Describe some devices that made romantic harmony so colorful.
6. The expansion of the orchestra during the romantic period.
7. The origins of program music.
8. The “union of the arts” in the romantic period.
ROMANTIC COMPOSERS AND THEIR PUBLIC
Objectives
This section explains that Beethoven’s career as “a free artist” influenced romantic composers. Factors
that determined the romantic composer’s role in society were the decline in wealth of the aristocracy, the
rise of the middle class (from which many composers traced their origins), and the rapid growth of public
concerts. Composers earned their living as virtuoso performers, teachers, conductors, and music critics.
Suggestions
1. The discussion of the romantic composer as a free spirit may bring to mind visions of la vie
Bohème, and the creative being starving in a cold garret. Perhaps we are overly influenced by Puccini, but
some comparisons may be appropriate at this time. One difference is the purpose of composition: can we
imagine Bach, with musicians to rehearse, children to teach and supervise, choristers to be taught their
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parts, and all the other requirements on his time, waiting for the muse to come and inspire him to write the
cantata for next Sunday’s services? Is it possible that the orchestra Mozart had in mind while writing the
great G minor Symphony had a flute vacancy at the time, which would explain why there is no second
flute part? On the other hand, consider Wagner writing for posterity, and for instruments not yet invented,
such as the Wagner tuba. Then there is the difference of audience, and human optimism in the search for
success. The troubles in Europe caused many, including musicians, to seek their fortunes in the New
World. In both worlds the performer had to live by his or her talents in open competition through public
concerts, and this was a new experience for all.
2. It may be interesting for students to discuss the various non-compositional jobs that composers
held (Schumann and Berlioz, for example, were critics). The freelance musician (a common role even in
today’s society) became a possibility for many in the middle-class. Challenge students to draw parallels
between the romantic bohemian composer and the “starving artist” trope with which we are now familiar.
3. Romantic music placed a premium on instrumental virtuosity, even more so than in the music
of previous periods. Play some examples of virtuosic music, such as works by Paganini or Liszt. Ask your
students to think of similar displays of virtuosity in the music to which they listen. Do they find that
virtuosity is a big part of it? Have a discussion about the importance of virtuosity and its impact on the
listening experience (sometimes mere technical virtuosity can have a negative impact and leave a listener
wanting).
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the non-compositional ways in which the romantic composer could earn a living.
2. Discuss the reasons for the decline in aristocratic support of music during the early romantic
period.
3. Compare and contrast the attitude toward composition of the romantic and the pre-romantic
composers.
4. The founding of the New York Philharmonic.
5. The composer as music critic during the romantic period.
6. The composer as conductor during the romantic period.
7. The virtuoso as composer during the romantic period.
THE ART SONG
Objectives
The nature of the art song is described in this section, and some principal composers and poets who
contributed to the development of the genre are mentioned. The function of the piano accompaniment is
explained, and the terms strophic, through-composed, modified strophic, and song cycle defined.
Suggestions
1. If not already discussed during the elements unit, this would be an opportune time to compare
folk songs with art songs. Authorship, trained vs. untrained voices, art (piano) vs. folk instruments for
accompaniment, range, poetic expression, and craftsmanship are just a few of the aspects that can be
considered. The art song can then be discussed, and the reasons for its early nineteenth-century flowering
in Germany.
2. Since the next section contains examples of through-composed and modified strophic songs,
you may wish to move right on to Schubert. If time permits, however, you may wish to discuss the
illustrative powers of the keyboard as an accompanying instrument. The movement of water, a favorite
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image of the romantic composer, is suggested by the piano figuration in Schubert’s Die Forelle and Auf
dem Wasser zu singen. In Die Stadt, no. 11 in Schubert’s Schwanengesang, the opening figure in the
piano part suggests swirling fog and mist. In Letzte Hoffnung, the sixteenth song of Schubert’s
Winterreise, the opening figure of the accompaniment portrays leaves falling from a tree in winter. All
these examples, of course, depict various natural phenomena, and this can serve to illustrate the romantic
composer’s preoccupation with nature, a salient point of the text. In each case, play the example without
introduction, and see if the students can identify the tone image. Play the example again after
identification to help those who may have had difficulty.
3. If you discuss the famous song cycles mentioned in the text, don’t forget to include Sgt.
Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, “a landmark of rock music” and a unified song cycle.
Questions and Topics
1. Define the three major types of musical settings found in art songs.
2. Describe the types of texts used by romantic composers.
3. Describe the function of the piano in the art song.
4. Goethe and the lied.
5. The romantic art song in France.
6. The song cycle in the romantic period.
FRANZ SCHUBERT
Objectives
Schubert’s early years as a student are described in the first part of this section, as are his first attempts at
composition and his experience as a teacher in his father’s school. Following the account of his
impoverished adulthood in Vienna, the Schubertiads, and his death at the age of thirty-one, his output and
the characteristics of his style are surveyed. Erlkönig and Die Forelle are then discussed as examples of
through-composed and modified strophic songs. The fourth movement (theme and variations) of the
Piano Quintet in A major (Trout) is then presented to illustrate Schubert’s instrumental compositions.
Suggestions
1. Following a discussion of the art song and its forms, if not already done in the previous section,
it is suggested that Die Forelle be presented first. In this way the students will become familiar with the
art form and the German language before attempting to scale the heights of Erlkönig. In helping the
students with the German, you may wish to point out some of the romantic traits in the text. For example,
in what way is the text subjective in approach? Do words like “thief,” “slyly,” and “betrayed” make us
sympathize with (feel for) the fish? (emotionalism). One fisherman and one fish, out of many
(individualism). The poem is by a German national poet, in German, and not in the more common
language of music, Italian (nationalism). Do fish swim? (personification, a part of supernaturalism.) You
may not wish to spend so much time on the text, but some characteristics of romanticism should be
included, followed by a discussion of the role of the accompaniment in fostering these feelings. Being less
than two minutes in length, the song could easily bear repetition following discussion.
2. It is hard to believe that Schubert could compose a work like Erlkönig at the age of eighteen,
and pointing out that most of the students in the class are probably past that age may give some
appreciation for his genius. Help the students with the German, and point out some romantic traits in the
text. When the form and language pose no problems, play Erlkönig once through for effect. Depending on
how much time you wish to spend on the poem, you might go over it quickly, pointing out the various
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characteristics of the vocal line and piano accompaniment. You might, however, consider the roles of
each character in Goethe’s poem. The poem could easily be made into a drama with three players and a
narrator to set the scene. Require each student playing a part to analyze the role and react accordingly.
Why does the father, for example, not see death? How does the father rationalize each of the boy’s fears?
What does the Erlking offer each time, until finally making an offer, in the words of the Godfather, the
boy “can’t refuse”? Having analyzed the poem, one can appreciate the skills required for one performer to
interpret the four characters in the story. There are many fine recordings available, and it is suggested that
two different interpretations be presented, even contrasting sexes. In this way you can discuss the
question of gender in art and popular songs: here the sex of the storyteller is irrelevant, but if a man were
to sing a sentimental ballad “He’s gone and left me . . . ” The recording in the set is the interpretation by
Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau. His use of head-tones for the child, chest tones for the father, and sotto voce for
the Erlking make it a brilliantly effective example to use in class following analysis.
3. Having discussed Schubert’s Die Forelle, you can then lead logically into Schubert’s
instrumental music with the fourth movement of the Piano Quintet as an example.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the principal stages of Schubert’s career.
2. Discuss Schubert’s ability to portray and develop character in his songs.
3. Describe the function of the accompanist in Schubert’s songs.
4. Schubert’s Great C Major Symphony and Robert Schumann.
5. Schubert’s Symphony no. 8 in B minor: unfinished?
6. Schubert and the Schubertiads.
7. Schubert’s operas: undeserved neglect?
8. Schubert’s Schöne Müllerin: Goethe’s Sorrows of Young Werther in song?
ROBERT SCHUMANN
Objectives
This section opens with a brief biography of Robert Schumann that traces the literary influences on his
life, his law studies, his attempt to become a virtuoso, and his love for, and eventual marriage to, Clara
Wieck. His career as a critic and musical administrator and his eventual confinement in a mental
institution are also discussed.
Suggestions
1. The text states “Robert Schumann in many ways embodied musical romanticism.” Schumann’s
influence is large, and students should be aware of his contribution to the music of the romantic period.
His work as founder and editor of the New Journal of Music and his support of the music of other
composers such as Schubert, Chopin, Berlioz, and Brahms are only two aspects of his great influence.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the characteristics of Robert Schumann’s musical style.
2. Describe the contents and purpose of Schumann’s New Journal of Music
3. Robert Schumann as critic and proponent of “new music.”
4. The Schumanns and Brahms.
5. Robert Schumann and the piano miniature.
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FRÉDÉRIC CHOPIN
Objectives
This section traces Chopin’s life from the early years as the darling of the Warsaw aristocracy through the
German and Austrian tour as a concert pianist to his prolonged stay in Paris. The brilliance of the artistic
and intellectual milieu of the French capital is described, along with Chopin’s place in it and his liaison
with George Sand. The style of Chopin’s piano music is described, and the section concludes with
discussions of and Listening Outlines for the Nocturne in Eb major, Op. 9 no. 2, and the Étude in C
minor, Op. 10, no. 12 (Revolutionary), and a brief discussion of the Polonaise in A flat major, Op. 53.
Suggestions
1. The recordings include three of Chopin’s works: the Polonaise in Ab major, Op. 53, the
Nocturne in Eb major, Op. 9, no. 2, and the Étude in C minor, Op. 10, no. 12 (Revolutionary). If you can,
play a recording of two or three of the short preludes as other examples from the “Poet of the Piano,” and
discuss briefly whether any piano student’s education can be considered complete without studying the
music of Chopin.
2. The Harvard Dictionary defines a nocturne as “a lyrical melody accompanied by broken chords
pedaled to collect the harmonies.” If not already discussed in previous sections, this would be an
opportune time to explain the use of the piano’s three pedals. The opening of Chopin’s Nocturne in E flat
major is given in the text, with the pedals clearly marked. Does this technique give a feeling of overall
calm? The text refers to this work as an “intimate composition . . . tinged with melancholy.” In what way
is it intimate? Melancholic? Could the nocturne be as effective in a meter other than 12/8? The melody,
its repetition in varied form (given in the text), and the ornamentation should be briefly discussed.
3. In discussing the Revolutionary Étude, first describe the purpose of an étude. You might ask
the students to try the old trick of patting one’s head while rubbing one’s stomach. How can one develop
such a technique? Similarly, how can one play a smooth legato run in the left hand while playing block
chords in the right, both compounded by the furious tempo? Ask the students, for example, to try making
a smooth run with their left hands on their desks (the first five fingers are fine, but then what?). If
possible, have multiple copies of the work available for classroom use. You may wish to pose some
questions regarding the work’s ABA form: what signals the return of the A section? Are there examples
of sequential repetition in the B section? Can changes of key be heard in the B section? How is the octave
theme of the A section varied in the return of A? The text mentions that the tension of the étude
momentarily subsides just before the final outburst. By what musical means is this relaxation of tension
achieved?
4. The text states the polonaise “originated as a stately processional dance for the Polish nobility.”
Point out that the polonaise was the processional most frequently used in opening state balls in European
courts and America. John Philip Sousa wrote his Presidential Polonaise for use at White House functions.
Like the minuet, the step pattern requires two measures of music, and, when done properly, the polonaise
becomes a most graceful and dignified processional. The text uses Chopin’s Polonaise in A flat major,
Op. 53 as an example.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the intellectual and cultural world of the Paris in which Chopin lived.
2. Describe the elements of Chopin’s piano style.
3. Chopin and George Sand.
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4. Nationalism and Chopin: the mazurkas, polonaises, and Polish Songs.
5. George Sand and Feminism.
FRANZ LISZT
Objectives
This section opens with an account of Liszt’s glamorous and multifaceted career. We read of his activities
as virtuoso pianist, composer, conductor, writer on music, and finally abbé. Liszt’s style, his invention of
the symphonic poem, his use of thematic transformation, and the influence of the works of Goethe on him
are also discussed. The section closes with a discussion of one of his Transcendental Études, no. 10 in F
minor, with Listening Outline.
Suggestions
1. Spend a little time discussing the rise of the virtuoso performer, especially in view of Liszt’s
role. Compare Liszt as a solo performer, for example, with Bach or Haydn, and stylistic differences will
inevitably result.
2. Some mention should be made of Liszt’s orchestral works, such as Les Préludes (do any of the
older students remember the Lone Ranger?) and the Second Hungarian Rhapsody (anyone remember the
old Chip & Dale cartoon?). His importance as the creator of the symphonic poem, his use of thematic
transformation, his championing of contemporary music, his many important piano transcriptions of
orchestral works, and his promoting the folk music of his many ethnic interests all bear discussion.
3. Liszt’s piano music is represented by his Transcendental Étude no. 10 in F minor. If not
already covered under Chopin, the purpose of an étude should be explained, and then related specifically
to Liszt.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe Liszt’s activities at Weimar.
2. Describe the symphonic poem, and explain the process of thematic transformation.
3. Describe the elements of Liszt’s writing for the keyboard.
4. Liszt as showman and virtuoso pianist.
5. Liszt as the champion of new music.
6. Liszt’s “Hungarian” music.
FELIX MENDELSSOHN
Objectives
The first portion of this section discusses the precociousness of the young Mendelssohn, his family
background, his influence as a conductor of Bach, Schubert, and Schumann, and his personality. Also
discussed is the phenomenal success of his oratorio Elijah in Birmingham, England. Important aspects of
his style are described, and some of his best-known compositions are listed. The section ends with a
discussion of his Violin Concerto in E minor.
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Suggestions
1. It would be interesting to ask the students how many compositions by Mendelssohn they can
name. Very frequently music used for functional purposes loses its association with the mainstream of
musical performance. Did anyone remember to name the recessional so frequently used at weddings?
While on the subject, you may wish to play part of the suite’s Overture, which he wrote at the age of
seventeen. Can the students identify the “elfin quality” of the light and transparent orchestral texture
mentioned in the text?
2. If this is the only solo concerto discussed in the course, some time should be taken to cover
basic terminology. After listening to the music, you may wish to pose some questions: in the development
section of the first movement, what material from the exposition is chosen for development, and what
developmental procedures are adopted? How does tempo contribute to the approach to the coda of this
movement? On what thematic material is this coda based?
3. If time permits, go on to the other movements. Some questions to consider: the allegretto non
troppo that serves as an introduction to the finale is based on music heard previously; what is the source
of this material? As with the first movement, ask the students to identify the sources of the thematic
material of the development section of the Finale and to describe the developmental processes at work.
4. Mendelssohn wrote a great deal of piano music in addition to the Songs without Words
mentioned in the text. Several of his piano pieces may be used to illustrate various aspects of his musical
style. His Rondo Capriccioso in E major, Op. 14, dates from 1824 when the composer was but fifteen.
The rondo opens with an Andante introduction, and the Presto that follows anticipates the “elfin quality”
of the Midsummer Night’s Dream music that came two years later.
6. Elijah is not as popular as it once was, but you might still wish to play some portions in class.
The scene where Elijah challenges the prophets of Baal and then brings on the rain can be quite effective,
especially with a few judicious cuts.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss Mendelssohn’s influence as a conductor.
2. Describe Mendelssohn’s musical style.
3. Discuss how Mendelssohn’s Violin Concerto deviates from the classical concerto.
4. Mendelssohn and the Bach revival.
5. Mendelssohn in Leipzig: the Gewandhaus Orchestra and the Conservatory.
6. Mendelssohn and Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream.
7. Mendelssohn and the oratorio.
PROGRAM MUSIC
Objectives
This section covers the nature of program music and its popularity during the romantic period. A
distinction is drawn between program and absolute music, and four categories of program music are
established: program symphony, concert overture, symphonic poem (or tone poem), and incidental music.
Suggestions
1. A few questions asked of the class will quickly let you know their feelings toward program
music. Thinking back to their days in elementary or junior high school, do they remember compositions
played in their music or art classes intended to evoke visual responses? Some may think of the many
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programmatic works in Disney’s film Fantasia. To highlight the text’s statement that music alone can
make no specific reference to ideas, emotions, or objects, play two contrasting selections and ask the
students to write down on a piece of scrap paper what they believe is happening. What mood is the
composer trying to evoke? Are there examples of sound effects? What images come to mind? What
actions, if any, are being portrayed in the music? A particular favorite that never fails to evoke interesting
responses is Prokofiev’s Scythian Suite. The second and third movements (“Chuzhbog and the dance of
the evil spirits” and “Night”) are usually identified as some form of argument followed by repose, but the
range of who is doing what to whom is quite varied. Be sure to identify the work after the discussion, in
the hope they may wish to hear the complete suite.
2. Regarding the text’s comment that “musicians and audiences in the romantic era liked to read
stories into all music, whether intended by the composer or not,” you might mention the “Fate knocking
at the door” or “V for Victory” aspects of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony. Similarly, Peter and the Wolf
was interpreted as a moralistic story during World War II (the text specifies audiences of the romantic
period, but here it appears in recent memory). The wolf was interpreted as the Axis powers, the duck
(swallowed alive) France, with Peter, the bird, and the cat being the Allied powers. You can most likely
think of other examples, and you may wish to raise the question of the value of program music in the first
place.
4. Schumann’s programmatic music was discussed, and can be reviewed here. The following four
sections have other examples of program music you may wish to mention at this time: Hector Berlioz and
the Fantastic Symphony, Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition, Tchaikovsky’s Romeo and Juliet
Overture, and Smetana’s Moldau. You may wish to include other personal favorites, helping students to
identify a work’s programmatic form and elements, summarize the plot, and name those musical
techniques that evoke literary or pictorial ideas. You can challenge the students to discover some
examples on their own (they can consult standard concert guides in the library), or provide suggestions
for them. Along with the works already mentioned in the text, here are a few suggestions just to get
started:
• the program symphony: Romeo and Juliet, Harold in Italy (Berlioz), Ilya Mourometz
(Glière), Faust, Dante (Liszt), Scheherazade (Rimsky-Korsakov), Alpine and Domestic
Symphonies (Strauss), The Ornithological Combat of Kings (Heinrich), and Through the
Looking Glass (Taylor);
• the concert overture: Tragic, Academic Festival (Brahms), Rob Roy, King Lear, and
Waverley (Berlioz), Cockaigne (Elgar), Russian Easter (Rimsky-Korsakov), and Faust
(Wagner);
• the symphonic poem: too numerous to mention, but consider Debussy, d’Indy, Franck,
Gershwin, Griffes, Honegger, Ives, Mussorgsky, Piston, Respighi, Saint-Saëns, Sibelius, and
Villa-Lobos as well as Liszt and Strauss.
• incidental music: there are many overtures intended for dramatic plays (Beethoven,
Mendelssohn, Paine, and Vaughan Williams) but suites from plays are less frequent. Peer
Gynt (Grieg) is a classic, and a portion of L’Arlésienne (Bizet) was discussed in the unit on
elements under texture (see I-8). Since the text also mentions movie scores, you might
include some examples. The London Symphony Orchestra’s recording of the music from Star
Wars may come as a complete surprise to both those who have seen the film and those who
have not. For those who have, you might ask if they can now listen to the music without
visual images running through their minds.
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Questions and Topics
1. Give some examples of the suggestive power of music.
2. Discuss the function of incidental music.
3. Compare and contrast the concert overture and the symphonic poem.
4. Forerunners of romantic program music.
5. Mussorgsky and Victor Hartmann.
HECTOR BERLIOZ
Objectives
Berlioz’s musical education, his infatuation with the Shakespearean actress Harriet Smithson, and the
circumstances surrounding the composition of the Fantastic Symphony are covered in this section.
Berlioz’s success in winning the Prix de Rome is contrasted with his later alienation from the Parisian
public and his success as composer-conductor outside France. The brilliance of Berlioz’s orchestration
and other elements of his musical style are described. The section ends with a discussion of the Fantastic
Symphony.
Suggestions
1. It was suggested in the discussions on musical style and Mozart that the Dies Irae and Tuba
Mirum sections of two Requiems be compared. While the stereo recording of Berlioz’s setting will not
equal the quadraphonic sound of the original brass bands reverberating throughout a massive cathedral,
the effect can still be quite impressive.
2. A brief look at Berlioz’s four symphonies will bear out the text’s remarks concerning his great
originality and emphasis on new and imaginative tone colors: the Fantastic Symphony (discussed below),
Harold in Italy for solo viola and orchestra, Roméo et Juliette for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra, and
finally the Symphonie funèbre et triomphale for large wind band with six-part chorus in the last
movement. All deserve some consideration, but as the last one is another of the very few recorded
examples of authentic band music of the period, an excerpt could demonstrate the sound of that medium
to the students. At the same time, remind them there were original works for band being composed and
not just transcriptions. Instead of an orchestral recording, it is suggested that the version by the Musique
des Gardiens de la Paix de Paris be considered since it is performed by a true symphonic band, the
medium Berlioz intended.
3. The text discusses the complete Fantastic Symphony and the importance of the idée fixe. For a
very interesting discussion of this work, see Leonard Bernstein’s “Berlioz Takes a Trip.” Each movement
is discussed, and the themes are illustrated by the orchestra, an advantage we do not have in the
classroom. Among the many elements to be discussed in this symphony, you may like to point out that
the second movement is a waltz, “the most popular dance of the romantic era.” The 3/8 time signature
may confuse students who think the waltz must be in 3/4, but that meter came later. It is interesting that
this symphony was written in the same year that Johann Strauss Senior obtained his first important
position (the Sperl), from where his fame began to spread, and while his more famous son was just five
years old. Before discussing the final movement, be sure to play the original chant of the Dies Irae for
background. With the present interest in chant, there are several recordings of the Missa pro Defunctis
available.
4. You may want to discuss with students the ways in which the orchestra has changed over the
centuries. Ask students to compare, and place in a seating plan, the instrumentalists called for in Bach’s
Brandenburg Concerto No. 5, Haydn’s Surprise Symphony, this symphony by Berlioz, and Mahler’s
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symphonies. You can even mention the inclusion of synthesizers and electronics in some contemporary
symphonic pieces (John Adam’s Fearful Symmetries, John Corigliano’s Vocalise, or Steve Reich’s The
Four Sections). Doing this should help the students visualize the tremendous changes that have taken
place, and define the continuous growth in personnel and instrumentation from the baroque through post-
romanticism.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the circumstances surrounding the composition of the Fantastic Symphony.
2. Discuss the use of the idée fixe in the Fantastic Symphony.
3. Discuss unusual features of the orchestration of the Fantastic Symphony.
4. Berlioz’s Treatise on Instrumentation and Orchestration.
5. Berlioz the critic.
6. Berlioz and the French musical establishment.
7. Quadraphonic sound in the nineteenth century: the Berlioz Requiem.
8. Berlioz and Shakespeare.
NATIONALISM IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY MUSIC
Objectives
The rise of nationalism and the unification of some countries in Europe are related to the French
Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Those countries whose musical heritage had been dominated by the
music of Italy, France, Germany, or Austria, particularly Russia, Poland, Bohemia, the Scandinavian
countries, and America, felt the strongest impact of nationalism. Major nationalistic composers are
mentioned. The text then focuses on Russian nationalism and the work of the “Russian five.” The music
of this group is illustrated by Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition.
Suggestions
1. Nationalism was a major characteristic of the nineteenth century, and continues into the
twenty-first century. You may wish to discuss the meaning of “nation,” for many students consider it a
political unit. How then does one feel allegiance to a political unit, especially if it has little or no
relevance to you? Perhaps if we substitute “ethnic group” for “nation” it will become more meaningful.
We can then discuss the factors that comprise an ethnic group: common language, religion, race, folk
traditions, costume, cuisine, legends, dances, art, and music. It proceeds logically that nationalistic music
contains these same elements: the dances, rhythms, timbres, melodies, language, legends, and heroes of
the ethnic group (“folk”). You may wish to discuss at this time differences between nineteenth- and
twentieth-century approaches to folk music: forcing the music into established traditional molds (major
and minor, regular rhythms, etc.) versus the music conforming to its own patterns despite “irregularities.”
2. The text presents Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition as an example of music by the
Russian Five and nationalism in music. Following a brief discussion of the complete work, there is a
Listening Outline for the last section, “The Great Gate of Kiev”. Pictures has been recorded in its original
piano form as well as in orchestrations by Ravel and others. Further, Emerson, Lake, and Palmer made
their own version in classical rock style, and Isao Tomita has his arrangement for synthesizer. A
comparison of portions of four versions should provoke stimulating discussion, besides reinforcing the
student’s knowledge of orchestration, electronic techniques, and rock trends. A discussion of the
circumstances behind its composition and illustrations of Victor Hartmann’s works should precede the
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playing of the sections chosen. Alfred Frankenstein’s edition of the piano solo original contains an
explanatory foreword and some sample sketches.
3. The text mentions Mussorgsky’s Night on Bald Mountain, and some students may remember
its inclusion in Disney’s Fantasia. Playing the work in class would be especially appropriate around
Halloween! Mussorgsky’s operas Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina could also be mentioned, especially
since the latter has been successfully revived at the Metropolitan. Another work not mentioned in the text,
but especially effective in showing the romantic fascination with the tragic, is Mussorgsky’s song cycle
Songs and Dances of Death.
Questions and Topics
1. How did nineteenth-century music reflect the political currents and aspirations toward freedom
by the European nations?
2. Describe some characteristics of folk music.
3. Describe how a composer can express nationalism in music.
4. Describe some nonmusical aspects of nationalism in the romantic period.
5. Romantic nationalism in Scandinavia, Poland, and America.
6. Rimsky-Korsakov and his “corrections” of Mussorgsky’s Boris Godunov.
7. Glinka as “Father of Russian music.”
PETER ILYICH TCHAIKOVSKY
Objectives
Tchaikovsky’s musical career is examined from its late inception at the age of twenty-one through the
early years of intense productivity, a disastrous marriage, and his subsidy by Madame von Meck. The
successes of his mature years are described and his works surveyed. The characteristics of his musical
style are discussed, and the section ends with a discussion of his overture-fantasy Romeo and Juliet.
Suggestions
1. The text mentions many of Tchaikovsky’s most popular compositions, and a few moments
could be devoted to reviewing them and any possible performances seen by the students. Several
companies have been presenting the ballets, and The Nutcracker has been televised over PBS, as has the
opera Pique Dame. The Overture 1812 is one of those gigantic productions, frequently done with cannon
and even fireworks in gala performances. The symphonies, even the earlier ones, are available in many
recorded interpretations. Because so much of his music is so well known, it is difficult to pick any one
work for supplemental listening, so you might consider playing short excerpts. The Fifth Symphony,
however, might be chosen because of its great popularity (the only work ever to surpass Beethoven’s
Fifth in a “classical music” popularity poll some years back). The work demonstrates Tchaikovsky’s use
of recurrent thematic material as a unifying device: the theme that opens the symphony recurs in the coda
of each of the four movements. If time is insufficient to listen to the complete work, part of each
movement could be heard, followed by the relevant coda (it would be helpful if these excerpts were taped
before class to make it easier to play them quickly).
2. Concerning Tchaikovsky’s musical style, you can challenge students to distinguish national
from international characteristics in his three ballets (Swan Lake, Sleeping Beauty, and The Nutcracker).
Ask students for brief plot summaries, in the hope they will become interested in and familiar with these
works, which, as the text states, contain some of his best music.
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3. Discuss the plot of Romeo and Juliet first, and then ask the students which elements they
would choose if they were to write an orchestral work. How would they depict these elements? Following
this discussion, present Tchaikovsky’s solution to these same problems. Some additional questions you
may wish to consider regarding this work: what are the factors that make the Friar Laurence theme hymn-
like? The love theme, on its initial appearance, is scored for solo english horn (mf, espr.) doubled by
muted violas (dolce), and accompanied by cellos and basses (pizz.) and horns (p). There is no dynamic
marking for the violas. Obviously, the conductor must decide the relative strength of the english horn
versus the muted viola sound. In the recording you use, which sound predominates? If possible, tape two
or more recordings of this passage, and ask the students to compare the balances achieved by different
conductors.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the elements of Tchaikovsky’s musical style.
2. Summarize the program of the Romeo and Juliet overture.
3. Discuss the tragic aspects of Tchaikovsky’s life.
4. Tchaikovsky and the Russian ballet.
5. Tchaikovsky’s operas.
6. Tchaikovsky and Shakespeare.
7. Tchaikovsky’s American voyage.
BEDŘICH SMETANA
Objectives
Smetana’s career is traced against the background of Austrian suppression of his native Bohemia, and the
resultant upsurge of nationalistic resistance. His stay in Sweden is mentioned, as are his deafness at the
age of fifty and death ten years later in an insane asylum. His music is represented by a discussion of The
Moldau.
Suggestions
1. Some discussion should concern Smetana’s role in the nationalistic movement of his native
land, with his musical output as the logical result. The Moldau is the second of six poems from his cycle
Má Vlast (My Fatherland), all of which contain detailed programs supplied by the composer.
2. Consider playing some of the dances from The Bartered Bride. The folk quality and joyfulness
of this work will shine through and give the students a clearer perspective on the use of folk elements in
nationalistic music.
3. Another well-known and popular work by Smetana is the first of his two string quartets,
subtitled “From My Life.” Both quartets are autobiographical and programmatic, and can be used to
demonstrate the composer’s musical style and his predilection for program music.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the influence of political events on Smetana’s life.
2. Discuss the form of The Moldau.
3. Discuss Smetana’s descriptive use of instruments in The Moldau.
4. Smetana’s autobiographical string quartets.
5. Smetana’s patriotic operas.
6. Smetana’s stay in Sweden.
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7. Smetana’s great comedy: The Bartered Bride.
ANTONIN DVOŘÁK
Objectives
Dvořák’s career is traced from his early years of obscurity, to his recognition by Brahms, and his
successes in England. His American stay, and his exploration of native American folk music are also
described. The section ends with a discussion of the composer’s Symphony no. 9 in E minor, From the
New World.
Suggestions
1. Much of Dvořák’s music has been recorded, as a glance at catalogs will reveal. Of greatest
relevance here are the well-known Slavonic Dances and the String Quartet no. 12, Op. 96 (American),
which has an obvious kinship to the New World Symphony.
2. An interesting analysis of the New World Symphony may be found in Leonard Bernstein’s The
Infinite Variety of Music. In discussing the symphony, help the students identify the syncopations and the
pentatonic and modal scales cited in the text as sources for the popular character of the work. Another
interesting exercise would be to locate the examples of thematic recall and motivic development
discussed in the text. For example, how does the “ominous” bass motive of the introduction foreshadow
the opening theme of the first movement? In the development of the first movement, precisely how are
the first and third themes combined and varied? In the bridge of the slow movement, which motives from
the first movement are used, and how is the “climactic” quality of the quotation achieved? In the scherzo,
which motives from the first movement are recalled in the bridge to the trio and in the coda, and how are
they manipulated? Identify all the quotations from previous movements that appear in the development
section of the Finale and verify that the processes of development and variation they undergo are
understood.
Before leaving this symphony, you may wish to discuss Dvořák’s attitude to American music.
Folk songs have frequently been incorporated into symphonic music, but it is seldom that the reverse is
true. For that reason, it would be interesting to play Goin’ Home, the “spiritual” derived from the addition
of words to Dvořák’s original melody of the second movement. The rendition by Paul Robeson is most
effective.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss Dvořák’s career outside his native land.
2. Discuss Dvořák’s use of thematic recall in the New World Symphony.
3. Discuss the folk elements present in the New World Symphony.
4. Dvořák in America.
5. The Czech folk element in the music of Dvořák.
JOHANNES BRAHMS
Objectives
The biographical section discusses Brahms’s early years in Hamburg, his discovery by Robert Schumann,
and his lifelong association with Robert and his wife Clara. Brahms’s life and activities as conductor and
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musical scholar in Vienna are described, as are his relentless self-criticism and gruff personality. The
characteristics of his musical style are analyzed, and the section ends with a discussion of his Symphony
No. 3 in F major, Op. 90 and the German Requiem.
Suggestions
1. The text begins the section on Brahms’s music with the statement that he “created masterpieces
in all the traditional forms except opera.” If he was such a traditionalist, a characteristic discussed
previously as “classical,” how then, can he be considered a romantic composer? How exactly did he
“reinterpret classical forms,” and was Wagner’s criticism justified? As for the number of masterpieces,
one could discuss his relatively small output in comparison to earlier composers (only four symphonies,
when Beethoven, Schubert, Dvořák, Spohr, and Bruckner each composed nine, etc.) in the light of his
high standards and extreme self-criticism. The question of which of these masterpieces to present to the
class will depend on your own preferences, for all are worthy of consideration. The pianist will have
his/her favorites, certainly among them the two Rhapsodies. The symphonist will not only push for the
four symphonies, but the concertos and double concerto as well. The chamber music enthusiast will insist
that nowhere in the nineteenth century is there such a wealth of material, each a gem: the three string
quartets, the two string quintets and two sextets, the cello sonatas, the clarinet sonatas and quintet, and the
horn trio. Then there are the lieder, which compare favorably with the masterpieces of Schubert and
Schumann.
2. Listen to a recording of the Carlos Santana and Dave Matthews song “Love of My Life” from
the album Supernatural. The melody of this song is taken from the poco allegretto movement of Brahms’
Symphony No. 3 in F Major, of which there is a discussion in the text. Have the students trace the
melodic and harmonic similarities. Emphasize the difference in meter (triple versus quadruple).
3. Reference has been made to the Requiem masses of Mozart, Berlioz, and Verdi, especially to
the terrifying concept of Judgement Day in the Dies irae portion. A comparison with Brahms’s German
Requiem will show not only how skillful Brahms is in his choral writing, but also his approach to death
and resurrection. The very beautiful chorus “How Lovely is Thy Dwelling Place” is included in the
recordings.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe Brahms’s early years as a student in Hamburg.
2. Describe the elements of Brahms’s musical style.
3. Describe Brahms’s relations with the Schumann family.
4. The chamber music of Brahms.
5. Brahms as musicologist.
6. Brahms and the Bible: the Four Serious Songs and the German Requiem.
7. Brahms and the techniques of thematic variation.
GIUSEPPE VERDI
Objectives
The biographical portion of this section takes Verdi from his impoverished youth through his musical
studies in Milan to the production of his first opera, Oberto, at La Scala. We learn of the tragic loss of his
wife and two children and of the instantaneous success of Nabucco, with its strong political overtones.
The operas of Verdi’s middle years are discussed, as are the masterpieces of his old age. The
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characteristics of Verdi’s operatic style are defined, with particular attention to the later works. The
section closes with a discussion of La donna è mobile and the famous Quartet from Act III of Rigoletto.
Suggestions
1. The text and translation, with musical annotations, of the great aria La donna è mobile and the
Quartet from Rigoletto are given in the text, and this may be a good place to start with any discussion of
Verdi. Be sure to outline the plot up to this point so the individual characters and their emotions in the
Quartet can be understood in context. A video would be helpful in setting the scene and illustrating the
stage settings and costumes.
2. You may wish to use your own favorite in class, but be sure to give a good English translation
with the original. The first act of Otello, for example, could be used. Discuss the plot briefly before
beginning, perhaps using a video to set the scene. Get them comfortably seated in their chairs and then let
the opening storm scene overwhelm them. To show that Verdi is not all bombast (if that is the right word)
play at least one of the more intimate and lyrical scenes. The first act love duet, followed by the death
scene with its musical reminiscences, may be appropriate, but that depends on how much time you can
devote to the work.
Questions and Topics
1. Explain the significance of the cry Viva Verdi.
2. Describe the characteristics of Verdi’s early and middle period operas.
3. Describe the characteristics of Verdi’s late operas.
4. Verdi and Italian unification.
5. Verdi the farmer.
6. Verdi and the plays of Shakespeare.
7. Continuity in Verdi’s late operas.
GIACOMO PUCCINI
Objectives
Puccini’s rise to fame, from his days as an impoverished student in Milan to the position of Italy’s leading
opera composer just before the turn of the century, is the subject of the first part of this section. His
musical style is described, and his output surveyed. The section concludes with the scene between Mimi
and Rodolfo in the first act of La Bohème.
Suggestions
1. The text deals very briefly with verismo, but you may wish to explore further into this aspect of
Italian opera. The Prologue to Leoncavallo’s I Pagliacci expresses the romantic composer’s desire for
“true to life” scenes, and may be considered the testament of the veristi.
2. In presenting La Bohème, invoke student responses with a comparison to their own life styles.
How many of them know what a cold-water flat is? What do the terms Latin Quarter, garret, tubercular,
and consumption mean? Are the operatic characters real people? Just how good is Rodolfo’s love life?
Mimi’s? Is the love duet really too much too soon? Are they not two of a kind, dreamers, ready for a
romantic involvement? If you have some students act out the scene before listening, they will find the
sentiments may be expressed in different words today, but the meaning is usually the same. As an
example, couldn’t we translate c’è freddo fuori as “Baby, it’s cold outside!”? The set and text include the
scene from Mimi’s entrance through the end of Act I.
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3. The inspiration for John Larsen’s hit show Rent is, of course, inspired by Puccini’s opera La
Bohème. You might choose to compare the scene from the opera included in the text (excerpt from
scene I in which Rudolfo sings the aria che gelida manina) with the similar scene from Rent in which the
song Light My Candle is sung.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe Puccini’s operatic style.
2. Summarize the plot of La Bohème.
3. Discuss the characteristics of verismo opera.
4. Tosca and Madame Butterfly as examples of verismo style.
5. Thematic recall in the operas of Puccini.
6. Do a comparison of Puccini’s La Bohème and the Broadway show Rent
RICHARD WAGNER
Objectives
In this section, the details of Wagner’s biography are woven into the account of his development as a
composer and conductor, political revolutionary and exile, and musical essayist. His relationship to King
Ludwig of Bavaria and the construction of the Wagner theater in Bayreuth are also discussed. Wagner’s
style and his system of leitmotifs are described, and the plot line of the Ring cycle summarized. The
section ends with a discussion of the “Love Scene” from Act I of Die Walküre, for which an annotated
libretto and English translation are provided.
Suggestions
1. The Prelude to Act III of Lohengrin was presented in the very first unit, and could be reviewed
at this time. You might mention the famous wedding march from this opera as an example of music that
everyone would recognize, even if they don’t realize it is by Wagner. Wagner’s other operas could also be
mentioned in passing, especially if there is a performance scheduled in your area. The Flying Dutchman,
for example, has been televised over PBS, and excerpts from other operas are frequently performed on
orchestral programs.
2. Since the example presented in the text, the “Love Scene” from Die Walküre, is a high point in
the Ring cycle, some explanation of the plot is necessary, although it can become quite confusing if done
in too much detail. You might wish to help students with the essentials of the plot, drawing comparisons
to J. R. R. Tolkien’s similar epic, Lord of the Rings to make it relatable. Discuss the various leitmotifs,
and illustrate them either through taped excerpts or on the piano.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe Wagner’s character and personality.
2. Discuss Wagner’s operatic innovations.
3. Summarize the plot of The Ring of the Nibelung.
4. The treatment of leitmotifs in Die Walküre.
5. Wagner’s Gesamtkunstwerk and his theories of music and drama.
6. Wagner as a critic of nineteenth-century society.
GUSTAV MAHLER
Objectives
The details of Mahler’s childhood are described, including influences exerted upon him by folk music and
military bands. His rise to fame as an exacting and demanding conductor, and the Vienna and New York
Philharmonic Orchestras are discussed. His personal life, and the struggle for recognition as a composer,
are also covered. His musical style is described, and major works surveyed. The section ends with a
discussion of his Songs of a Wayfarer.
Suggestions
1. Ask the students if they have ever felt depressed over a lost girl/boyfriend. Was it a general
feeling of depression, or malaise? Can they express those feelings in words? Ask a student to read the
words of Ging heut’ Morgen übers Feld aloud, and discuss the meaning and symbolism. How does the
idea of wandering reinforce the feelings expressed in the poetry? The text compares the cycle to
Schubert’s Die Winterreise, but might not his Schöne Müllerin be an even more telling comparison? The
use of orchestral accompaniment instead of piano should be noted, as well as the form and romantic
aspects of the text.
2. Mahler used the theme of Ging heut’ Morgen übers Feld in the opening movement of his first
symphony, and the closing section of the fourth song, Die zwei blauen Augen, in the third. This presents
an opportunity to illustrate Mahler’s instrumental works. What personal, emotional, or musical reasons
might Mahler have had for using themes from the earlier work in the symphony, especially in the funeral
march?
Questions and Topics
1. Why did Mahler, so closely associated with operas throughout his life, compose mainly
symphonic music?
2. Discuss the significance of the nickname “Symphony of a Thousand” applied to Mahler’s
Eighth Symphony.
3. Discuss Mahler’s influence on Schoenberg, Webern, and Berg.
4. Mahler’s First Symphony: five movements or four?
5. Mahler’s techniques of orchestration.
6. Mahler and the New York Philharmonic.
