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V. THE CLASSICAL PERIOD
THE CLASSICAL STYLE (1750-1820)
Objectives
This section opens with a general survey of some nonmusical aspects of the classical period. The work of
some great figures of the “age of enlightenment” is discussed, and the effect of these men on this age of
revolution. The contributions of such rococo artists as Watteau and Fragonard, the neoclassicist David,
and such socially conscious artists as Hogarth and Goya are evaluated. Bach’s sons are mentioned as
representatives of the style galant, and their work related to that of the rococo artists. The problematical
term classical is defined, and the remainder of the section seeks to define (often in comparison with the
baroque) the various elements of classical style: contrast of mood, flexible rhythm, homophonic texture,
melody, dynamics and the piano, the end of the basso continuo, the classical orchestra, and a general
statement on classical forms.
Suggestions
1. This section is designed as a general introduction to the classical period, and as such is quite
self-sufficient. Challenge students to compare the classical style with the baroque style, either in class or
as an assignment. For this introductory section, focus mainly on the general aesthetic and intellectual
preferences of the periods, rather than musical elements.
2. You may wish to present a listening exercise to help students compare works stylistically. It is
suggested you play portions of three works in class, allowing sufficient time for the students to write
down the appropriate styles. In addition to writing down their guesses as to which period they feel the
music represents, have them write down the title and composer (once you’ve told them), should they wish
to hear more on their own. You might compare, for example, the fast section of the Sinfonia from
Messiah with the allegro from Haydn’s Surprise Symphony. You may wish to consider having a baroque,
classical, and style galant work, but then modify the chart accordingly.
3. In discussing the general characteristics of the classical period, consider Jacques-Louis David’s
Death of Socrates. The subject is taken from classical antiquity, the forms are clearly and realistically
drawn, and the treatment is clearly objective. Considering the situation, the emotions are highly
restrained.
4. If you wish to discuss the style galant, you might compare one of the compositions of J. C. or
K. P. E. Bach to Fragonard’s The Music Lesson or The Swing. The same pleasant salon style should be
recognizable in both music and art, and therein lay their charm. More important, in a course where nearly
all works discussed are masterpieces, one needs the valleys to heighten the mountains. Listening to this
light unpretentious music, one develops a more genuine appreciation for Mozart. One could also mention
that the style galant was the popular movement at the time of the founding of our nation.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the intellectual climate of the “age of enlightenment.”
2. Discuss the diverse meanings attached to the term classical.
3. Discuss the characteristics of the so-called style galant.
4. Discuss the principal movements in the visual arts that spanned the period between the baroque
and classical periods in music.
5. Discuss some respects in which classical music differed from that of the baroque.
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6. Rococo in art, style galant in music: a study in parallels.
7. The development of the orchestra during the classical period.
COMPOSER, PATRON, AND PUBLIC IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD
Objectives
This section sketches the political and social climate of the classical period, an era that witnessed the
French and American revolutions and the Napoleonic Wars. The musical taste and practices of the rising
middle class are described, as is the influence of this middle class on the composers of the time. The
section ends with a description of musical Vienna during the classical period.
Suggestions
1. In discussing some of the political events of the time, you may wish to refer to the illustration
of Goya’s The Third of May, 1808. Though painted in the classical period, the work has all the
characteristics of romanticism. The subjective treatment of the scene puts the viewer squarely on the side
of the peasants, even though this was a revolt against established authority and order as understood by the
aristocracy at the time. The use of the lantern as a spotlight dramatically highlights the central figures: a
person in an obvious martyr pose and a simple cleric, clearly suggesting that the common levels of the
church (as opposed to the aristocratic bishops and princes) are on the side of the rebellion, and these are
martyrs for a cause. Comparing this work with the Death of Socrates will visually show the differences
between the classic and romantic spirits.
2. The status of the musician as a high-class servant can be discussed, using the situations of
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven as examples.
3. A discussion of the rise of the middle class in this period can concern the question of musical
tastes and fashion. For example, the middle class consciously attended public concerts and operas, and
provided their children with music lessons to fit them for society. Ask how many of the students have had
music lessons and how many public concerts and/or operas they have attended in the past year. Further,
you may wish to question if they intend to provide such lessons for themselves or their children in the
future.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss some political events and sociological factors that made the classical period such a
time of violent upheaval.
2. Compare the means by which the three great musical figures of the classical period supported
themselves.
3. Discuss the role of the middle class in the musical life of the classical period.
4. Describe the musical life of Vienna in the classical period.
5. Beethoven’s benefactors.
6. Mozart’s death.
7. Mozart and Amadeus: reality and fiction compared.
8. Haydn and the Esterházys.
9. Folk music in the classical period.
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SONATA FORM
Objectives
A clear distinction is made between the sonata and sonata form (or sonata-allegro form). Sonata form is
then divided into its three main components, exposition, development, and recapitulation, and the
characteristic properties of each section are analyzed. The optional slow introduction and coda are also
discussed. The section ends with a discussion of the last movement of Mozart’s Symphony no. 40 in G
Minor.
Suggestions
1. It might be helpful to the students if you outlined sonata form on the board, showing the tonal
plan as you do so. Later, while playing the Mozart movement, you can silently point to the various
sections as they occur, without causing the mood to be broken.
2. As an illustration of sonata form, consider playing a short and relatively simple sonatina, such
as the C major by Clementi.
3. Place the last movement of the G Minor Symphony in context, then play the movement once
through for effect. In discussing the movement, you may wish to raise some of the following questions:
can examples of sequence be detected in the bridge? What element of the first theme is present in the
closing theme? How does insistent repetition contribute to the “closing” quality of this theme? How does
the harmony contribute to the “closing” quality of this theme? Are there examples of sequence in the
development? Where?
Questions and Topics
1. Identify those movements of a multi-movement work that are likely to be in sonata form.
2. Compare and contrast the exposition and recapitulation of a movement in sonata form.
3. Describe the nature of the development section of a movement in sonata form, and discuss the
musical techniques that are likely to be found therein.
4. Describe the role of the optional introduction and coda often found with sonata form.
5. Thematic development in sonata form.
6. “Rounded binary” form as a predecessor of sonata form.
7. Sonata form and the structure of a three-act play: an analogy.
THEME AND VARIATIONS
Objectives
This section presents theme and variations form, and discusses some techniques by which a composer can
vary musical ideas. The example given is the second movement of Haydn’s Symphony no. 94 (Surprise).
Suggestions
1. You may or may not wish to tell the old legend about the reason for the “surprise.” (Haydn
supposedly said this would wake those who had fallen asleep during the performance). Cover the basic
techniques for providing variation and the specific means by which Haydn provides variety yet maintains
unity.
2. You may wish to include Mozart’s variations on Ah, vous dirai-je, maman (probably better
known to the students as Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star), K. 265.
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3. If you wish to pursue the matter even further, the recordings include the theme and variations
on “Simple Gifts” of Copland’s Appalachian Spring, which can be used as an example.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss some procedures available to the composer of theme and variations.
2. Thematic variation in improvised jazz.
3. Theme and variations: its prehistory.
MINUET AND TRIO
Objectives
This section explains the minuet-trio-minuet form and the internal structure of these larger sections.
Beethoven’s transformation of this dance movement into the scherzo is considered, and the section ends
with a discussion of the minuet from Mozart’s Eine Kleine Nachtmusik.
Suggestions
1. The text states “the minuet was a stately, dignified dance in which the dancing couple
exchanged curtsies and bows.” Perhaps visions of a room full of ornately dressed gentlemen and ladies
bowing and scraping in three-quarter time fills the head of the student, with even a vague recollection that
the Father of our Country was known to have danced the minuet. A few minutes spent in correcting these
misconceptions may well give a better appreciation for the importance of dancing, the reason for the
minuet’s inclusion in symphonic forms even after it lost its popularity as a dance, and the period as a
whole.
It is impossible to have a feeling of baroque and classical style without some appreciation for the
importance of the dance. Further information and practical suggestions may be found in Wendy Hilton’s
Dance of Court & Theater. Even selected readings will bring rewarding insights and pleasures to anyone
exploring the subject, and the minuet figures quite prominently.
The minuet was a product of the court of Louis XIV, and reflects its stylization and refinement.
Classical ballet today is an outgrowth of that court, and the five basic positions were first outlined by
Louis’s dancing master, Pierre Beauchamp (perhaps one of your students with ballet experience could
quickly demonstrate these positions?). The minuet was normally danced by one couple, while the others
observed, flirted, or carried on conversations. The couple would first bow/curtsy to the presence (Louis,
or the highest ranking nobleman present) and then to each other. They would then commence an intricate
series of steps, tracing patterns with their feet on the floor that would frequently cover the full dancing
area. The giving of hands while turning gracefully, and the beautifully embellished “Z” figures can make
this a most sensuous dance, far from the common misperception. Steps were small, and the movements
clear and economical, full of dignity and poise. The pattern consisted of four steps in six beats, or two
measures of music (an important point for conductors and performers to remember so that the music does
not become a One-2-3 waltz). The couple would end facing the presence, and pay their respects again (the
“curtsy” by the ladies consisted of a demi-plié).
2. To give some feeling of the difficulty of this dance, you might ask the class to stand
comfortably in place. Now assume the first position (heels together, 45 degree angle), with chest and head
up, stomach in, full of poise, dignity, and noble bearing. Assume that we are dressed in a beautifully
ornamented costume, tightly laced or corseted for the ladies and quite heavy for the men. Men would also
be expected to have a hat, usually quite ornate and quite heavy. Now try doing a demi-plié followed by a
relevé a few times gracefully. One will begin to understand why the dancing master and daily practice
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were so important, and why, as with ballet dancers today, it took years of practice to become a good
dancer.
Illustrations of the bow and hand gestures may be found in Hilton’s book, and in Pierre Rameau’s
The Dancing Master. Note especially figure 20, “The King’s Grand Ball,” which illustrates the dance
environment described above. Some intricate patterns are illustrated in E. Pemberton’s An Essay for the
Improvement of Dancing. Musical examples may easily be found in the works of Jean-Philippe Rameau
(no relation to Pierre).
3. You can also go directly to the minuet from Mozart’s Eine Kleine Nachtmusik. Note that the
minuet by this time is no longer intended for dancing, but rather for pleasant listening, as befits a
serenade.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the character and origins of the minuet as a dance.
2. Explain the origins of the term “trio.”
3. Diagram the general and internal structures of the minuet movement of the symphony.
4. Beauchamp and the origins of classical ballet.
5. The minuet at the court of Louis XIV.
6. From minuet to scherzo: a study of Beethoven’s third movements.
7. The serenade in the classical period.
RONDO
Objectives
This section explains the characteristics of rondo and sonata-rondo form. The fourth movement of
Beethoven’s String Quartet in C minor, Op. 18, no. 4 is discussed.
Suggestions
1. Chamber music is discussed, but it would be helpful to the students to discuss the string quartet
at this time.
2. Another means of solving the artistic problem of achieving variety and yet maintaining unity,
the rondo is an important form worthy of discussion. The text uses for its example the last movement of
Beethoven’s Op. 18, no. 4, to focus on the medium of the string quartet at the same time. Both the
medium of the string quartet and the form of the rondo should be discussed and illustrated.
3. You may wish to include the rondo of Beethoven’s Piano Sonata in G minor, Op. 13
(Pathétique) in your discussion.
4. If you wish to cover sonata-rondo form, consider the third movement of Haydn’s Trumpet
Concerto.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the principle that underlies rondo form.
2. Diagram two variants of rondo form.
3. Explain sonata-rondo form.
4. The rondeau of the French clavecinists: precursor of the classical rondo?
5. The independent rondos of Mozart and Beethoven.
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THE CLASSICAL SYMPHONY
Objectives
The importance of the symphony as the great contribution of the classical period is explained. The
symphonic output of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven is briefly surveyed, and the characteristic content of
each of the four movements of the classical symphony explored.
Suggestions
1. The basic component parts of the symphony have been discussed in earlier sections: sonata
form, theme and variations, minuet and trio, and rondo. It is now time to put all the “trees” into the
“forest” and show their context in a complete work. You may wish to cover this material very quickly and
go on to the next section, perhaps give a short quiz on the materials covered so far in the classical period,
or review the various component parts at this time.
2. If you wish additional materials for discussion, note that the recordings contain not only the
works discussed so far (Haydn’s Surprise Symphony, Beethoven’s Op. 18, no. 4, Mozart’s G minor and
Nachtmusik), but the complete Mozart G Minor and Beethoven Fifth Symphonies. The Online Learning
Center contains the remaining movements of Haydn’s Surprise and Dvořák’s New World symphonies.
3. If your students are preparing to attend a live performance of a symphonic piece, you may wish
to outline that piece beforehand in class. Use diagrams and form outlines to break down the work into
digestible sections for the students to understand.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the characteristic formal plans and content usually found in a classical symphony.
2. Explain how the various movements of a symphony are unified and complemented.
3. Origins of the classical symphony.
4. Haydn’s early symphonies.
5. The significance of the Mannheim school in the development of the symphony.
6. Mozart’s early symphonies.
THE CLASSICAL CONCERTO
Objectives
The importance of the concerto in the classical era is explained and its dramatic nature defined. The
classical concerto’s three-movement form and double exposition in the first movement are discussed, and
this procedure is contrasted with the standard sonata form. The nature and role of the cadenza are also
treated.
Suggestions
l. This section is designed as a brief introduction to the classical concerto. Because the prehistory
of the classical concerto has been adequately delineated by previous studies of the baroque concerto
grosso and solo concerto, further study of the classical concerto may be deferred until where Haydn’s
Trumpet Concerto is discussed, or where Mozart’s Piano Concerto No. 23 is discussed.
2. You may wish to explore the form of the double exposition before moving on. The first
movement of Mozart’s Piano Concerto No. 23 is a fine example. After discussion, see if the students can
recognize variations: Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto begins with a brief statement of the theme by
the piano soloist, after which the orchestra takes over and presents the material of the first exposition.
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Beethoven’s Fifth (Emperor) Concerto begins with an extended cadenza for the pianist with chordal
punctuation by the orchestra before the orchestra presents the first exposition. Play both opening sections
and see if your class can spot these obvious departures from normal procedure in a classical concerto.
What effect must these openings have had at the first performance of the works? How is the sense of
improvisation generated in the opening of the Emperor concerto?
Questions and Topics
1. Define the roles of soloist and orchestra in a classical concerto.
2. Define the nature and function of the cadenza in a classical concerto.
3. Compare and contrast the first movements of a classical concerto and symphony.
4. Concertos for solo brass and woodwind instruments in the classical period.
5. The cadenza in the classical period: notated or improvised?
CLASSICAL CHAMBER MUSIC
Objectives
Chamber music is defined in this section as music written for two to nine musicians, with one player to a
part. The intimate character of chamber music is stressed, and the problems in playing small ensemble
music explained. The string quartet is singled out for special consideration, although other common
combinations are mentioned.
Suggestions
1. The text describes how chamber music during the classical period was often played by well-to-
do amateurs or by professional musicians hired to entertain guests after dinner. Have these traditions been
entirely lost? Have your students heard any music for small ensembles under these circumstances? A
string quartet at a wedding, perhaps? Have they ever sat in on a jam session?
2. Some time should be given to the importance of the string quartet in the development of
chamber music, and the reasons for its preeminence as the major form in the genre. One can cite the sheer
number and quality of quartets by the masters, such as Haydn’s 68, Beethoven’s 16, and the many
quartets by Mozart, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Dvořák, Bartók, Shostakovich, and others.
3. Discuss and provide examples of other standard forms of chamber music, including woodwind
and brass combinations. Chamber music for a group of instruments with piano could well be placed in its
own special category, since the piano is generally pitted against the other members of the ensemble.
Compare, for example, the Beethoven quartet movement with Schubert’s Trout Quintet to note the role of
the piano when linked with a few other instruments in a chamber music setting. Consider the piano trio,
quartet, and quintet combinations. Contrast the two versions of Beethoven’s Opus 16, the original for
piano and winds, then arranged for piano and strings.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the composition of the classical string quartet.
2. Discuss the nature of chamber music and its performance problems.
3. Discuss the social milieu in which chamber music was performed in the classical period.
4. Haydn’s early string quartets: the divertimento.
5. The piano quartet in the classical period.
6. The violin and piano sonatas of Mozart and Beethoven: a comparison.
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JOSEPH HAYDN
Objectives
Haydn’s career is traced from his birth in the Austrian village of Rohrau, through his early childhood
years, to his service at Esterháza and his two triumphant visits to London. The features of his musical
style are analyzed, and his enormous output surveyed. The remaining movements of his Symphony No.
94 (Surprise) are discussed, and the section ends with a description of the third movement, sonata-rondo,
of his Trumpet Concerto in E flat Major.
Suggestions
1. Some of Haydn’s biographical details were discussed in relationship to the status of the
composer and musician to the aristocracy and the middle class musical environment, and this would be a
good time for review.
2. Following some brief discussion of Haydn’s place in the development of music, some
examples of his music should be given, though it is difficult to make choices out of such an enormous
wealth of compositions. The text gives a detailed discussion of Haydn’s Symphony No. 94 in G major
(Surprise), so this would be a good place to start. Regarding this symphony, and many others as well, you
may wish to raise some of the following questions: how is suspense maintained in the slow introduction
to the first movement? Which elements of the themes are chosen for thematic development? Are materials
from the introduction integrated into the rest of the movement?
4. Since the text stresses the importance of Haydn’s sixty-eight authentic string quartets and his
historical position as (possibly) the innovator of the form, it seems appropriate to discuss some major
works in this genre. You may wish, for example, to compare the variations movement of the Emperor
quartet (Op. 76, No. 3) with the variations movement of the Surprise Symphony. Considering the text’s
reference to the “folk flavor” in many of Haydn’s themes, how do they compare to the melody God Save
the Emperor used in the quartet?
5. In discussing the classical orchestra, the text states “horns and trumpets brought power to loud
passages and filled out the harmony, but they did not usually play the main melody.” Reminding the
students of the limitations of the natural horns and trumpets to the overtone series, review some orchestral
works played in class, or have the students sing a familiar bugle call such as Taps. With this background
they can then appreciate the great technical improvement introduced by Anton Weidinger, Prince
Esterházy’s court trumpeter, for whom Haydn wrote his concerto. The change from a simple “filler” role
to one of being able to play a sustained melody was unprecedented. The work is played today on the
modern valve trumpet, and has achieved new notoriety with Wynton Marsalis’ recording.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the elements of Haydn’s musical style.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages to Haydn from his employment at Eszterháza.
3. Folk song and peasant dance in the music of Haydn.
4. Haydn’s London triumphs.
5. The wind music of Haydn.
6. Haydn’s operas and masses.
7. Haydn and the string quartet: the development of a form.
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WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART
Objectives
This section surveys Mozart’s career from the prodigious early years through the unhappy Salzburg
period to the final tragedy in Vienna. Mozart’s style and his enormous output in all the major forms are
described. The section concludes with a detailed discussion of four representative examples of his output,
an opera, a symphony, a concerto, and the Requiem. From Don Giovanni there are discussions of the
Overture and Act II Finale, and Vocal Music Guides for the Introduction, Catalog aria, and duet La ci
darem la mano from Act I. The complete Symphony no. 40 in G minor, K. 550, is discussed, with a
Listening Outline for the first movement. The Piano Concerto no. 23 in A major, K. 488, is discussed.
The section ends with a discussion of the Requiem, K. 626.
Suggestions
1. Where does one start with Mozart? The whole semester could be spent on this man’s work
alone, and yet in an introductory course that is neither possible nor practical. The text has singled out four
major works as representative, but you may wish to add your personal favorites and leave the text
discussions for the students to do as additional listening at home. In any case, certainly some biographical
details of this troubled giant should be discussed. Someone once defined “genius” as a child with a
grandmother. You might spend a few minutes discussing why Mozart is generally considered an
incomparable genius. Consider comparing his first symphony (K. 16), written at the age of nine, with his
40th. Since the slow movement of the first symphony uses the same theme as the finale of the Jupiter
symphony, this may be an even more valuable comparison.
2. Depending on the amount of material covered previously in discussing baroque opera, the
student should be made aware of the importance of opera in the classical period. Don Giovanni can then
be introduced, and the excerpts played in class. If Italian pronunciation was not reviewed previously, the
students may need some help at this time. Videos showing the stage settings, scenes, and costumes are
available, and would help visualize the plot.
4. The text states that Mozart’s characters are “individual human beings who think and feel.” You
might therefore ask several students to act/read through one of the scenes, analyzing each person’s social
position, attitude, and motivation. What is the dramatic function of Leporello’s Catalog aria? How would
a female student react to an invitation “to go for a walk” by a handsome wealthy stranger (the latest male
sex symbol, for example?). Is Zerlina’s response a human one? What is Don Giovanni’s attitude to life?
In his refusal to repent, is it similar to Mussolini’s statement “better to live one hour as a lion, than a
hundred years as a lamb”? Much can be done with these few excerpts, and all should be aimed at making
the students anxious to see and hear a live performance.
5. The last movement of the G minor symphony was discussed earlier. The text now discusses the
complete work. You might consider reviewing the Outline quickly, and then leave it for the students to
use at home, and use multiple copies of the score in the classroom where you can help them keep their
place.
6. The Piano Concerto no. 23 in A major, K. 488, is presented as an example of his great output
for solo instrument and orchestra. A Listening Outline is provided for the first movement. The first
movement is performed on a piano, while the second and third feature the fortepiano. This would be a
logical place then to compare the two instruments, and to discuss the original instruments movement. A
good discussion might arise from a comparison of the concerto in A Major to another written during the
same period. Is there a marked difference in tone color or dynamic range? How might one describe the
differences in style with regards to virtuosity versus lyricism? If not discussed previously, illustrate the
concerto’s double exposition.
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7. In view of the text’s anecdote concerning its mysterious commissioning, you may wish to
include some excerpts from the Requiem. The opening section, with its elaborate double fugue, can
illustrate the text’s comments regarding Bach’s influence on the mature Mozart. With a view to the
coming stylistic period, you may wish to consider the Dies irae and Tuba mirum sections. A comparison
of Mozart’s setting with either Berlioz’s or Verdi’s settings of the same text will clearly demonstrate
differences between the classical and romantic viewpoints.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe Mozart’s career in Salzburg and Vienna.
2. Discuss the principal influences on the development of Mozart’s musical style.
3. Summarize the libretto of Don Giovanni.
4. Compare and contrast Mozart’s style with that of Haydn.
5. Mozart’s letters.
6. Mozart’s concertos for solo instruments.
7. Mozart’s German operas.
8. Mozart and Freemasonry: The Magic Flute.
9. Mozart’s music for winds: the divertimenti, cassations, and serenades.
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN
Objectives
This section opens with a discussion of Beethoven’s childhood, his early musical training, and the
triumphant early years in Vienna. The deterioration of his hearing and the effect of this affliction on his
career is also treated. Beethoven’s style, style periods, and his enormous effect on the history of music are
described. Two works are discussed in detail: the Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 13 (Pathétique), and the
Fifth Symphony.
Suggestions
1. The text quietly begins “For many people, Ludwig van Beethoven represents the highest level
of musical genius.” Can we imagine the course of musical history without Beethoven? What would be the
reputations today of Hummel, Clementi, and Pleyel, among others, had there been no Beethoven? As with
Mozart, where can one begin? The text, and accompanying recordings, limit themselves to but three
masterpieces: the Pathétique Sonata, the C minor symphony, and a movement from a string quartet.
Again you may wish to include your own favorites.
2. Remind the students who may have seen Disney’s Fantasia that Beethoven’s sixth symphony
was used for one of the sequences.
3. You might wish to discuss Beethoven’s only opera, Fidelio. Typical of the many nineteenth-
century “rescue” operas, it amply demonstrates Beethoven’s genius in taking a form and raising it to
heights never before achieved.
4. It may be appropriate at this time to take a few moments to discuss the development of the
piano and its literature. The harpsichord, the early pianoforte (leather-covered hammers, etc.) and the
modern piano should be discussed before introducing the Beethoven sonata. Mention has already been
made of the recordings of Mozart’s Piano Concerto No. 23 performed on the pianoforte, and it may be
compared to the later sounds and effects of the romantic concert grand. Beethoven’s Pathétique Sonata
can then be placed in context. The text provides an analysis.
5. Beethoven’s string quartets are considered among the greatest in the entire literature, so much
so that they simultaneously intimidated and inspired such composers as Schubert, Brahms, and Bartók.
The fourth movement of Beethoven’s String Quartet Op. 18 no. 4, composed between 1798 and 1800,
was discussed in the section on rondo form. A comparison of the opus 18 movement with the opus 130
would illustrate his early and late periods.
6. One should not leave the subject of Beethoven without at least suggesting that some
consideration be given to granting the students the opportunity of hearing Schiller’s Ode to Joy and the
magnificent Ninth Symphony. The text, with translation, should be duplicated so that the students may
understand the poem. You might mention the rock adaptation (?!) of the brotherhood theme issued under
the title Song of Joy some years back, in case any of the students may still remember it, and compare it to
the original (actually, no comparison!) More important than the rock version, however, is the current
movement in Europe where the brotherhood theme is assuming the status of an unofficial anthem. Le
Drapeau de l’Europe (The Flag of Europe), by which this hymn is known, expresses the hope for a
peaceful, harmonious European community.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe Beethoven’s childhood and early musical training.
2. Describe the sources of Beethoven’s income during his Viennese period.
3. Describe the manner in which Beethoven unified the contrasting movements in his works.
4. Describe those elements of Beethoven’s style that contribute to the dramatic intensity of his
music.
5. Divide Beethoven’s output into periods, and define the characteristics of each phase of his
development.
6. The Heiligenstadt testament: triumph of genius?
7. Fidelio: opera or staged oratorio?
8. Beethoven the romanticist.
