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IV. THE BAROQUE PERIOD
BAROQUE MUSIC (1600-1750)
Objectives
This section opens with a general characterization of baroque style as one that “fills space—canvas, stone,
or sound—with action and movement.” Baroque style is set against a backdrop of seventeenth-century
scientific discovery. The baroque in music is divided into three periods—early, middle and late—and the
general style characteristics of each are briefly defined. The main body of the section treats in turn each of
the following elements of late baroque style: unity of mood, rhythm, melody, dynamics, texture, chords
and the basso continuo, text setting, the baroque orchestra, and baroque forms.
Suggestions
1. Discuss the general characteristics of the baroque, and how the “age of grandeur” differed from
the Renaissance. Consider using the illustrations in the text: compare the calm, order, and timeless
serenity of Raphael’s Madonna del Granduca with the emotional and dynamic effect of Peter Paul
Rubens’ Descent from the Cross. In the latter, note that a specific moment in time is being portrayed, as if
the scene were but one frame of a motion picture. Similar comparisons can be drawn between
Michelangelo’s David and Bernini’s David Slaying Goliath. The Palace of Versailles is a fine example of
“grandiose magnificence,” a characteristic of the baroque. Other excellent visual examples of baroque
style include Artemisia Gentileschi’s Judith Slaying Holofernes and Nicolas Poussin’s Mars and Venus.
Gentileschi, a follower of Caravaggio, captures the emotional intensity and moment in time at which
Judith plunges the blade through Holofernes’ neck. Poussin’s work, one of the first in which he pays
serious attention to the expression of emotions, is based on I Samuel 5, but was probably inspired by a
plague in Milan in 1629. In contrast, Rembrandt’s Self-Portrait depicts the calm contemplation of “the
greatest of all philosophers.”
2. In approaching a new period, it is suggested that representative excerpts of both the old and
new styles be compared. Josquin’s Ave Maria, for example, could be compared to the opening of Bach’s
Wachet Auf, or the dances from Terpsichore to the Fifth Brandenburg. Be sure to identify the
compositions after discussion, in the hope the students will wish to hear more, and as preparation for
when they study the compositions later in the course.
3. Discuss the concept of the figured bass, and its similarity to modern lead sheets. If possible,
bring a sample to class, and illustrate, or discuss, the manner in which a cocktail pianist or jazz performer
chords and improvises on a melody. Explain the importance of the doubling instrument on the bass line,
especially considering the low dynamic level of the harpsichord. Note the brief example in the text.
Questions and Topics
1. How does the use of recurrent motivic development in the baroque compare with the melodic
style of contemporary jazz improvisation?
2. Describe some conventions adopted by baroque composers in setting words to music.
3. Describe the elements that comprise figured bass.
4. The growth of the violin family during the baroque period.
5. The development of the orchestra and orchestration during the baroque period.
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MUSIC IN BAROQUE SOCIETY
Objectives
This brief section describes the cultural milieu in which the baroque musician functioned. His relationship
to court, church, town, and commercial opera house is discussed, and the ways in which he was trained
and practiced his profession described.
Suggestions
1. Discuss the importance of music to the nobility in the baroque. Do we not use modern sound
equipment in a manner similar to the nobility, to provide music for entertainment, relaxation, and
dancing? Is not the student with his IPod like the nobleman with his traveling orchestra?
2. Discuss the social position of the musician as a “high-class servant.” Draw attention to Bach’s
dedication of his Brandenburg concertos mentioned in the text.
3. Discuss the life and duties of the court musician, and compare them to those of the town
musicians (Stadtpfeiffer, waits). Include the responsibilities of the music director, and compare with
similar positions in this century (Sousa, Bernstein, Copland, et al., writing and performing their own
music as well as that of others). Stress the constant demand for new music.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the training of the baroque musician.
2. Describe the process by which musicians obtained jobs during the baroque period.
3. Describe the activities and duties of a musician at a baroque court.
4. Frederick the Great, Quantz, and music.
5. Commercial opera in Venice during the baroque.
6. Handel as businessman.
7. Barbara Strozzi: performer, composer, and impresario in a male-dominated field.
THE CONCERTO GROSSO AND RITORNELLO FORM
Objectives
This section defines the elements that comprise the multi-movement concerto grosso. The roles of tutti
and soloists are described, and the ritornello form is explained and illustrated by the first movement of
Bach’s Fifth Brandenburg Concerto.
Suggestions
1. Review the concept of terraced dynamics, and the baroque principle of contrast between loud
and soft sounds. Define the concerto grosso, and introduce ritornello form.
2. Play the ritornello theme of Bach’s Fifth Brandenburg Concerto, first movement. Once the
students can recognize the theme, proceed into the first movement. Because of the present decibel level of
much popular music, it will probably all sound soft, and it may take several hearings before they are able
to hear dynamic and instrumental contrasts. When they can distinguish tutti from ripieno passages,
continue into the movement, stressing especially the great (and unusual) harpsichord solo. Mention the
difference in baroque terminology in that flute meant recorder, while the German flute was the modern
flute. If possible, contrast two recordings of the same work, one in which the recorder replaces the flute as
a solo instrument.
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3. Review any previous discussions about Bach as a link to the work you are about to present.
Some mention should be made of the other five concertos in the Brandenburg set, either here or in the
discussion of Bach’s life and works.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the use of the ritornello in the concerto grosso.
2. Describe the use of tutti versus soloists in the concerto grosso.
3. Describe the circumstances surrounding the composition of Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos.
4. Bach in Cöthen.
5. The use of soloists in Bach’s six Brandenburg concertos.
THE FUGUE
Objectives
In this section a general definition of fugue is presented, the makeup of the fugal exposition explained,
and the form of the fugue as a whole discussed. The following terms, relating to fugal procedures, are
defined: subject, answer, countersubject, episode, stretto, pedal (or organ) point, inversion, retrograde,
augmentation, and diminution. Bach’s Little Fugue in G Minor for organ is analyzed.
Suggestions
1. Discuss the form of the fugue, the various terms involved, and ways in which the subject can
be varied. Show how the fugue is one more resolution to the artistic challenge of providing unity as well
as variety. Play or sing the subject of Bach’s Little Fugue as often as necessary for the students to be able
to sing along. In some classes just the first two bars may have to suffice for the subject. When the
students are sure about the subject, challenge them to count how many complete statements of the subject
they hear in the work. You might help them with the first two or three, especially if you have diagramed
the exposition on the board. After listening, ask for a show of hands for how many heard four complete
statements, five, etc., as high as you feel necessary. The usual variety of showings will prove to them how
skillful Bach was in presenting the subject, and since the answer is in the text, will also give you an
indication of who reads the assignments.
2. Visually illustrate inversion, retrograde, augmentation, and diminution by means of a word
(such as FUGUE: [upside down], EUGUF, F U G U E, etc.).
3. Discuss the question of transcriptions, comparing them to the original (you can find various
videos of orchestral transcriptions). Beyond the standard orchestral transcriptions, consider a symphonic
band transcription, an arrangement for wind quintet, or even a transcription for koto, shakuhachi, guitar,
bass, and drums.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the ways in which a fugue subject can be varied.
2. Define and illustrate inversion, retrograde, augmentation, and diminution.
3. Bach’s organ fugues.
4. Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier.
5. Bach’s own precedent for musical transcriptions.
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THE ELEMENTS OF OPERA
Objectives
Since opera originated in the baroque period, this section is designed to introduce the student to the
various conventions of opera as a prelude to the discussions of Monteverdi’s Orfeo and Purcell’s Dido
and Aeneas. The text describes the function of all those involved in an opera production: singers,
orchestral players, conductor, chorus, dancers, supernumeraries, technicians, stagehands, vocal coaches,
and prompters. Also discussed are the relationship between composer and librettist, the characteristics of
serious as opposed to comic opera, and the enormous range of characters to be found on the musical
stage. The basic voice categories are explained, as are the various types of musical numbers to be found in
opera, including the aria, the recitative, and the various types of vocal ensembles. Also included is a
discussion of the functions of the operatic chorus, the prelude or overture, and the use of dance on stage.
The section ends with a discussion of the pros and cons of opera in translation and the use of supertitles.
Suggestions
1. Through informal discussion in class, determine the general attitude toward opera. An open
discussion should bring out many valuable points, both from those who have had good as well as bad
experiences. While the terms are important, they should be secondary to the aim of exciting and preparing
the students for an actual performance.
2. Begin with a dramatic play: are not certain conventions accepted, such as the passage of time,
differences of place, and the invisible fourth wall? In opera the audience is simply asked to accept one
more convention: the characters sing their emotions, rather than “emote” them. As for the claim that all
operas are tragic, note there are many comic ones, but note also that any list of academy award
nominations will have a great number of tragedies represented. Is tragedy more noble, or more worthy
perhaps, of artistic effort than comedy?
3. Present “a visit to the opera house” by starting at whatever level you feel your students are.
You may have to begin by telling them where operas are given in your area, how to get there, where to
buy tickets, how the prices compare with movie or theater tickets, how to dress (some may still have the
mistaken notion that all patrons of the Metropolitan Opera wear white tie and tails), the ushers, the
program, and finally the seat. Hopefully the above can all be dispensed with in many classes, but if the
students have never seen anything live except a rock or rap concert, they may need some guidance. Once
in their hypothetical seats, discuss the overture or prelude, the aria, ensemble, chorus, when to applaud,
etc. You may wish to discuss the pros and cons of opera in translation and the use of supertitles, but, as
with religion, this can frequently become a heated and non-productive discussion.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe some of the performers involved in the making of opera.
2. Describe some of the various voice categories used in opera.
3. Discuss the controversy surrounding the translation of opera and the use of supertitles.
4. Describe some uses of the operatic ensemble.
5. Opera: its prehistory.
6. The economics of opera, past and present.
7. The opera audience, past and present.
8. Ballet in opera.
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OPERA IN THE BAROQUE ERA
Objectives
The origins of opera in the Florentine Camerata are explained, and the early efforts of Peri and
Monteverdi described. The influence of Greek mythology and ancient history on these early operas is
shown. The spread of the public opera house from Venice to Hamburg, Leipzig, and London is traced,
and the colossal and spectacular nature of baroque opera is described. The rise of the virtuoso singer, the
castrato, and the form of the da capo aria are covered.
Suggestions
1. Review the Renaissance madrigal, especially its polyphonic treatment of the text. Discuss the
Florentine Camerata and their desire to have a single vocal line follow the rhythms and pitch fluctuations
of speech. To illustrate, ask several students to read any sentence in the text, using different voice
inflections to change meanings. How would they set the sentence to music? The aims and ideals of the
Camerata are expressed in the writings of Pietro de’ Bardi, Ottavio Rinuccini, Giulio Caccini, and Jacopo
Peri. You may wish to scan these pertinent writings quickly for passages to be read and discussed in class.
2. In discussing the earliest preserved opera, you may wish to include excerpts from Euridice by
Jacopo Peri.
3. In discussing the elaborate operatic productions, note Pietro Domenico Olivero’s painting of
the interior of the Royal Theater in Turin.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the aims and ideals of the Florentine Camerata.
2. Describe those factors that made Venetian opera a great tourist attraction.
3. Describe the form and function of the recitative and da capo aria combination.
4. Stage machinery in the baroque era and the contemporary opera house.
5. The castrato as a sociomusical phenomenon.
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI
Objectives
The career of Claudio Monteverdi is traced, and his contributions to the development of opera discussed.
His techniques of creating music of emotional intensity are described, as are his new orchestral effects.
The plot of Orfeo is outlined, and the recitative Tu se’ morta is discussed in detail.
Suggestions
1. The revolutionary aspect of the early baroque can be discussed by reference to the violent
attack on Monteverdi by Artusi, and the reply by Monteverdi’s brother.
2. Discuss the Orpheus legend, and its importance throughout history even up to modern times.
Review the Florentine Camerata, and the elements of baroque opera. Review, if necessary, Italian
pronunciation, and set the scene before playing the recitative Tu se’ morta. The text mentions three
climaxes; discuss and see if the students can hear them in context. A video of the complete opera is
available, and the excerpt can effectively be brought to life by showing that portion beginning with the
festivities just before the messenger arrives with the tragic news.
Questions and Topics
1. Trace the career of Monteverdi, and explain his importance in the history of music.
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2. Monteverdi and the development of the orchestra.
3. Orpheus in baroque opera.
4. The Orpheus legend as set by Peri, Monteverdi, Rossi, Gluck, Pergolesi, Krenek, and
Stravinsky.
HENRY PURCELL
Objectives
Purcell’s career and output are described along with his success in handling the English language. The
ground bass, an important variation form in the baroque, is defined. The plot line of his opera Dido and
Aeneas is summarized, and the section ends with a discussion of the last act of the opera, with special
attention to the famous “Dido’s Lament” which concludes the work.
Suggestions
1. Briefly discuss Purcell’s life and times, and the text’s statement that he is “called the greatest
of English composers.” Considering the many other English composers, including Britten, is this claim
justified? What of Handel? Does his foreign birth preclude his being considered an English composer?
Can the students relate to a composer so distant in time from them, or do they simply accept the statement
because the text and the instructor say it is true? How can one develop an appreciation for his music?
2. Review the plot of the opera, and set the stage for the final act. If time permits, play “Dido’s
Lament” and see if the students are aware of the basso ostinato. Having heard the aria for its dramatic
effect, help the students with the form. Write the ground bass on the board (or use an overheard
projector), and help the students follow each repetition. Ask the students to suggest why the vocal melody
tends to make the listener forget the repetitions of the bass pattern. Show how this again provides unity as
well as variety. Ask the students to point out passages where the beginning of the ground bass is
overlapped by the continuing vocal melody.
3. If you wish to include some of Purcell’s instrumental music, consider his suite from Abdelazer.
The students should recognize the source of the theme of Britten’s Young Person’s Guide to the
Orchestra, and several recordings of the suite are presently available.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the career and musical accomplishments of Henry Purcell.
2. Summarize the plot of Dido and Aeneas.
3. Discuss those elements of the opera that contribute to its great variety.
4. Purcell and the English language.
5. Music for the stage, other than opera, in Purcell’s England.
THE BAROQUE SONATA
Objectives
The sonata is defined in this brief section as “a composition in several movements for one to eight
instruments.” The trio sonata is defined, and a distinction made between the sonatas da chiesa and da
camera.
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Suggestions
1. Review the concept of basso continuo, and the practice of having an instrument double the bass
line of the organ or harpsichord. Remind students of the sound of the harpsichord, as in the Brandenburg
concerto covered previously. Discuss also the baroque practice of interchangeability between upper
voices, such as the text’s reference to violins, flutes or oboes.
2. You may wish to introduce two other important terms at this time, cantata and toccata. Sonata,
from sonare, to sound, a composition for musical instruments; cantata, from cantare, to sing, a
composition for voices with instrumental accompaniment; and toccata, from toccare, to touch, to finger, a
composition for keyboard, where one touches/fingers the instrument’s keys. Simplistic, but effective,
especially for students with some interest in or familiarity with Italian.
3. One of Corelli’s Opus 3 sonatas da chiesa will be discussed in the next section, but you may
wish to introduce the differences between the sonata da chiesa and da camera at this time.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the general construction of the baroque sonata.
2. Discuss the instrumental composition of the trio sonata.
3. Distinguish between the sonatas da camera and da chiesa.
4. The origins of the baroque sonata.
5. The baroque sonata in England, France and Germany.
ARCANGELO CORELLI
Objectives
This section briefly describes the career of Arcangelo Corelli, and analyzes his Trio Sonata in A minor,
Op. 3, no. 10.
Suggestions
1. Discuss the development of the violin family, and how it differs from the viol. Place Corelli’s
position in the development of violin technique, the importance of chords and double stops, and the
“golden age of strings.” The major violin makers, such as Nicolò Amati, Antonio Stradivarius, and
Andrea Guarnerius, might also be mentioned at this time.
2. Review the concept of basso continuo, using the brief excerpt given in the text. Play the bass
part as written, and then realize as much as you can in several different styles of ornamentation. By
varying realizations from a bare minimum to overly ornate, the students should develop an appreciation
and understanding of the importance of the keyboard player in the trio sonata. Play the recording of the
first movement and ask the students to compare that realization with yours and discuss differences.
3. If not done in the previous section, discuss the differences between the sonatas da chiesa and
da camera. Considering these differences and that Corelli’s Opus 3 sonatas are examples of the da chiesa
form, does the last movement of the sonata, which the text describes as “dancelike,” meet the standards
imposed of a dignified character suitable for sacred performance?
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss Corelli’s role in the expansion of violin technique.
2. Describe Corelli’s compositional output.
3. Discuss the form of Corelli’s Trio Sonata in A minor, Op. 3, no, 10.
4. Corelli the virtuoso violinist.
5. Corelli the teacher.
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6. Other leading Italian composers of string music in the early eighteenth century.
ANTONIO VIVALDI
Objectives
The career of Antonio Vivaldi is discussed in this section, including his work at the Pietà. The Spring
Concerto from The Four Seasons is analyzed as representative of his output. All three movements are
discussed.
Suggestions
1. Review the discussion on Corelli, and the rise of the violin family. Discuss Vivaldi’s work in
Venice regarding the development of string technique, and the great variety of instrumental combinations.
2. Discuss the concerto analyzed in the text, first within the context of the complete Four
Seasons, and then as the opening work in the set. Be sure to read the translation of the sonnet that inspired
Vivaldi, resulting in works the text refers to as predecessors of romantic program music (the original
Italian text, and the florid dedication to Count Venceslao Marzin, are included in the Eulenburg edition
(1220/3) of the score). Note also Botticelli’s La Primavera. As with the Bach discussed earlier, it might
prove beneficial to play the ritornello theme first, and then discuss tone painting, finally playing through
the complete movement.
3. Cecilia Bartoli’s The Vivaldi Album is based on melodies from Vivaldi’s The Four Seasons,
which may make for an interesting comparison with the instrumental versions.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe Vivaldi’s career and his subsequent position in music history.
2. Describe the concerts of the Pietà.
3. Discuss the form and general character of Vivaldi’s Spring Concerto.
4. The Vivaldi revival in the 1950s.
5. Vivaldi’s music for unusual instruments and combinations.
6. Vivaldi’s concerti grossi: one concerto 300 times?
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH
Objectives
Bach’s career is traced from his birth into a musical family in 1685, through the various positions he held
throughout Germany, to the final years at St. Thomas Church in Leipzig. The richness of his harmony and
contrapuntal inventiveness are described, as are the rhythmic propulsion and rich symbolism that
characterize his output. The Prelude and Fugue in C minor from Book I of the Well-Tempered Clavier are
discussed. The section ends with a discussion of two parts of the Credo from Bach’s Mass in B minor, the
“Crucifixus” and “Et Resurrexit.”
Suggestions
1. The main biographical details of Bach’s life are presented in this section, so it would be worth
a few minutes to discuss his musical importance during his own time, and contrast it with his importance
now. Some mention might also be made of his successful sons, and how they overshadowed him near the
end of his life. You might also mention Anna Magdalena, who with four young children to take care of
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(from Bach’s first wife) still had to learn to play the harpsichord, resulting in the delightful Notebook,
which should be recommended to any pianists in the class.
2. Review the works already discussed, and place them within the chronology outlined in the text.
Following sections may be introduced at this time, such as the baroque suite and the chorale and church
cantata, both of which include music by Bach as examples.
3. Review concerto grosso form, and the first movement of Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto no. 5.
If time permits, play the complete first movement, but if not, play at least the ritornello theme to remind
the class of the style and mood. Discuss the remaining two movements, especially the contrasts between
slow and fast, tutti and concertino, and the role of the continuo in the middle movement (you might wish
to play recordings of several different realizations of the second movement for comparison and criticism).
As with most baroque music, questions should be raised regarding the use of sequence, especially in the
fast movements, and the use of contrapuntal imitation.
4. Some mention should be made of the other five concertos in the Brandenburg set. If time is
insufficient to play any portions, at least discuss the varied instrumentations with the aim of whetting the
appetites of any performers in the class. Certainly flutists should be interested in numbers 4 and 5,
trumpeters in number 2, horn players in number 1, and so forth.
5. Review the organization of the musical form of the Roman Catholic Mass (the Kyrie, Gloria,
Credo, Sanctus, Benedictus, and Agnus Dei sections). Explain how Bach divided the Credo section into
six separate choruses, a duet, and a bass solo. Play the basso ostinato as found in the text, and discuss the
symbolism in Bach’s setting. You might wish to point out the dissonance on the syllable fix of
“crucifixus,” weak to modern ears but strong to Bach’s listeners, that has been likened to blows
hammering the nails affixing Jesus to the cross. Discuss the significance of the Resurrection to the
Christian church, and the joy with which it is greeted. Do not spoil the effect by anticipating Bach’s
joyous outburst; rather, after a brief discussion to be sure the students understand the context, let the
music speak for itself. Play the “Crucifixus” and sustain the mood until the jubilant chorus overpowers
all. You may wish to end by raising the question of how a devout Lutheran can write such a beautiful and
effective Catholic Mass (and even how many thrilling performances are made by Jewish musicians?)
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the elements of Bach’s style.
2. Trace Bach’s career from birth until 1723, the year he accepted the position in Leipzig.
3. Describe Bach’s duties in Leipzig.
4. The Bach family.
5. Bach’s contemporaries, with special reference to the career of Georg Philipp Telemann.
6. The town musician in Germany during the eighteenth century.
THE BAROQUE SUITE
Objectives
The national origins of the various dances that make up the baroque suite are explained, as are the
character of each dance and the binary form that they share. Also covered is the non-dance movement that
frequently opens the suite, the French overture. Bach’s Suite no. 3 in D Major is examined in detail.
Suggestions
1. Discuss the importance of dancing to the nobility, stressing that the ability to dance was one
sign of a gentleman, the significance of couple dancing in the evening, and that at least one hour per day
would have been spent with the dancing master. Discuss also the desire of the common people to emulate
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as best they could the actions of the nobility, including dancing, though on a lower and less sophisticated
level. Note also the instrument used for these dances (lute). A more relevant, and perhaps more interesting
example of paired dances are the passamezzo and galliard from Terpsichore.
2. Discuss the early history and development of the dance suite, and the work of Johann Jacob
Froberger in establishing the general sequence of allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue. Froberger’s
Suite in E minor may be used to illustrate the development of the suite before Bach.
3. Discuss Bach’s keyboard works, such as the English and French Suites, and the Partitas. Show
how they continue the development of the suite from Froberger, and how Bach has added other dances,
such as the gavotte, passepied, loure, and anglaise, and nondance sections such as the prelude and air.
4. Discuss Bach’s Suite No. 3, especially regarding differences from the keyboard suites: the
French overture and “modern” dances instead of earlier forms. If possible, play two different versions of
one of the movements and compare with regard to the performance of the dotted rhythms (double dotted
performance?), tempo, suitability for dancing, and effective use of instrumentation. In this regard it would
be interesting to compare recordings of modern and period instruments.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the characteristic formal structure of the dances that form the baroque suite.
2. Describe the component parts and stylistic characteristics of the French overture.
3. Discuss the characteristics of each of the three dances in Bach’s Suite in D Major: gavotte,
bourrée, and gigue.
4. The paired dances of the Renaissance as predecessor of the baroque suite.
5. The origins of the sarabande.
6. The dance in France.
7. Folk dance elements in the baroque suite.
THE CHORALE AND CHURCH CANTATA
Objectives
The place of music in the Lutheran service is described in this section, and the nature of the Lutheran
chorale and the chorale prelude defined. The church cantata designed for the Lutheran service in Bach’s
time is singled out for special attention, after which a detailed study of three of the seven movements of
his Cantata no. 140, Wachet Auf, Ruft Uns Die Stimme, is presented.
Suggestions
1. Discuss briefly the state of music in the Catholic church at the time, and the importance of
congregational singing in the Protestant church, especially Lutheran services. You may even wish to have
the class sing a hymn, unless you can assume all are familiar with the practice.
2. Discuss and define the chorale, using Wachet Auf as an example. Help the students sing the
chorale melody, so they will be better able to recognize it when listening to the cantata (if you wish them
to sing it with the German text, help them first with the language; otherwise use “la”s).
3. To help students recognize the chorale in contrapuntal settings and demonstrate the form, play
(live or on record) the chorale prelude based on Wachet Auf.
4. Discuss the form of the cantata, using Wachet Auf as an example. Unless you feel the students
are fully familiar with the chorale (because of the above suggestions), play the seventh movement first.
Following that, discuss the parable as a whole, and then each movement, both text and musical setting.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the functions of the chorale and chorale prelude in the Lutheran church service.
2. Explain how the chorale melody is used in Bach’s Cantata no. 140.
3. Cite examples of word-painting or musical symbolism in Bach’s Cantata no. 140.
4. Martin Luther and the Lutheran chorale.
5. Folk songs as a source of the Lutheran chorale.
6. The Lutheran chorale and the Catholic hymn.
7. The chorale prelude: a study in textural variety.
8. Bach’s cantatas: an overview.
THE ORATORIO
Objectives
This section is intended mainly as a concise introduction to the term oratorio. Traced to its origin in early
seventeenth-century Italy, its characteristics are contrasted with those large-scale baroque vocal genres
already discussed, the opera and the cantata.
Suggestions
1. Discuss the development of oratorio, comparing it to the opera. You may wish to speculate on
the characteristics that make a given story suitable for treatment as an oratorio instead of an opera,
considering the roles of the narrator, the chorus as commentators on and participants in the drama, and the
orchestral accompaniment.
2. As examples of early oratorios you may consider Carissimi’s Jonas or Judicium Salomonis. An
even earlier example, though not as dramatic as the Solomon excerpt, is Cavalieri’s Rappresentazione di
anima e di corpo. The text should be projected or duplicated.
Questions and Topics
1. Compare and contrast the oratorio, opera, and the church cantata.
2. Discuss the roles of the narrator and the chorus in the oratorio.
3. Liturgical drama and the mystery play as forerunners of the oratorio.
4. The Passion oratorio.
5. The oratorio in France: Marc-Antoine Charpentier.
GEORGE FRIDERIC HANDEL
Objectives
Handel’s life is traced from his early years as a student of both music and law to his apprenticeship in
Hamburg’s opera house and his three-year sojourn in Italy. After a brief stay in Hanover, he established
himself in London as the leading English composer of the time. His contributions to both opera and
oratorio are explained, as are his tribulations as an entrepreneur. The bulk of the section is devoted to four
selections from his oratorio Messiah.
Suggestions
1. Discuss briefly the biographical details of Handel’s life, his success as an opera composer and
impresario, his response to the failure of opera in England through the oratorio, and his stature with Bach
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as the greatest composers of the late baroque. If time permits, some examples of his instrumental works
might be discussed and illustrated.
2. Considering the present great revival of Handel’s operas, you might wish to take a few
moments to review Italian opera, especially in its English environment. Giulio Cesare is available on
video, and selected excerpts should demonstrate why these operas were so popular to English audiences.
Be sure to explain why women sing the castrato roles of Caesar and others in contemporary
performances. Is this too much of a credibility leap for modern audiences? Are these operas still relevant?
(Recent sold-out performances seem to prove they are!)
3. Review the development of oratorio, and the circumstances that prompted Handel to leave
opera for this form. With Messiah as an example, introduce the opening tenor recitative and aria, noting
especially the word painting. Comment briefly on the use of the chorus, and present “For unto us a child
is born.” Be sure to leave sufficient time for what many consider the finest chorus ever written,
“Hallelujah.” Take a moment to discuss the annotations before playing, as some students might confuse
the text with the description. If sufficient vocal scores are available for distribution, explain the piano
reduction, and the possibility that solos heard in the recording may differ from the page due to
improvisational embellishments.
4. In these days of informality when gentlemen seldom rise as a lady enters the room, it may be
worth taking a moment to discuss the American tradition of rising for the “Hallelujah” chorus. Some feel
that audiences still stand today simply because of the king’s rising then, rather than as a tribute to the
genius of the composer and his composition.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss Handel’s career up to his departure for London in 1712.
2. Discuss Handel’s career from 1712 to his death in 1759.
3. Describe Handel’s approach to the elements of opera.
4. Describe Handel’s approach to the elements of oratorio.
5. The effect of The Beggar’s Opera on Italian opera in England.
6. Opera in England during the first half of the eighteenth century.
7. Handel’s instrumental music.
