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I. ELEMENTS
SOUND: PITCH, DYNAMICS, AND TONE COLOR
Objectives
The elements of music are approached through a general discussion of sound; its antithesis, silence; its
subdivision into those sounds that are pleasant or interesting and those that are not; and its production by
the vibrations of an object through a medium. Using the student’s ability to sing our national anthem and
the familiar “do-re-mi” scale, the concepts of pitch, interval, and octave are introduced. The use of
dynamics in music is explained, as are the standard dynamic indications from pp to ff and the signs for
crescendo and diminuendo. Timbre is defined, and the function of tone color in composition is discussed.
The section ends with Listening Outlines, each designed to illustrate concepts introduced in the text:
Wagner’s Prelude to Act III of Lohengrin, Stravinsky’s Firebird, and C-Jam Blues by Duke Ellington and
his orchestra.
Suggestions
1. Highlighted terms in the text are also defined in the Glossary.
2. In discussing pitch, consider bringing in a siren whistle (readily available as a percussion sound
effect) to demonstrate the full pitch range, and a tuning fork to show organization and scientific
standardization. See also the percussion section in Britten’s Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra.
3. The text refers to “the familiar scale” and then gives the solfège syllables. This would be an
opportune time to have the class sing Richard Rodgers’ “Do-Re-Mi” from The Sound of Music. A nice
icebreaker, it will also show the students that the syllables are familiar, and that music classes are not
necessarily spectator sports.
4. Some explanation of the Listening Outlines should be given so that students can be self-
sufficient in their listening assignments outside and inside of class. Examples, all included in the
recordings, are provided in this first section. As they are quite short, you may be able to fit in several for
variety, stressing the terms introduced in this first section: pitch, dynamics, and timbre.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the rationale behind John Cage’s 4'33".
2. Compare and contrast the use of dynamics in two of the works discussed in this section.
3. Compare and contrast the use of dynamics in any two compositions, especially between
different musical styles.
4. Compare the use of solo instruments in Wagner’s Prelude and Ellington’s C-Jam Blues.
5. Musical terminology and the science of acoustics.
6. The use of electronic amplification at rock concerts.
7. Pitch ranges of musical instruments and voices compared.
8. Timbre and the harmonic series.
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PERFORMING MEDIA: VOICES AND INSTRUMENTS
Objectives
The principal goal of this section is to familiarize the student with the SATB classification of the human
voice and the classification of the various families of instruments. The mechanisms of the various
instruments are described, their ranges noted, and their functions in solo and ensemble capacities
discussed. An important section deals with new technologies in electronic instruments, including brief
discussions of the tape studio, synthesizers, analog synthesis, digital frequency modulation synthesis,
effects devices, sampling, MIDI, and the use of computers. The section ends with discussions of
Benjamin Britten’s Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra and John Philip Sousa’s march The Stars and
Stripes Forever.
Suggestions
1. In discussing vocal ranges and performance styles, you may wish to include nonwestern
models. Compare, for example, the voices in the Puccini excerpt with Bessie Smith’s blues and the
African examples, all included in the recordings. Explore on your own, and see which strike your fancy.
2. In discussing the groupings of instruments, you may wish to include the nonwestern
instruments.
3. Time should be left for a major work in the orchestral repertoire, Britten’s Young Person’s
Guide to the Orchestra. The work is fully discussed in the text, but you might put the numbers 1 through
13 on the board to help the students recognize the variations without having to talk over the music. You
might also mention the great popularity of this work as the ballet Fanfare.
4. Find a blank seating chart for orchestra online and print it out. Encourage students to fill it in,
preparing them for live performances. The best plan for illustrating this section would be to arrange a visit
by your class to an actual rehearsal, either on campus with one of the college or college-community
groups, or at an open rehearsal of the local professional orchestra (these latter are usually open
performance-rehearsals, however, so they would not be as valuable as an actual working rehearsal).
5. There is a whole section devoted to electronic instruments and computer-based music, a
recognition that non-acoustic music is ubiquitous. Consider having the class visit a sound studio
(especially if there is one on campus), or bring a synthesizer or laptop (with software instruments) to
class. Some students might be delighted to make a presentation.
6. This section ends with a Listening Outline for John Philip Sousa’s magnificent march The
Stars and Stripes Forever. At this point it might be too confusing to discuss the form of the march, but
students should be able to recognize timbre differences between the symphonic orchestra and the modern
symphonic band or wind ensemble. Point out that Congress has officially recognized this work as
America’s national march.
Questions and Topics
1. Compare the mechanisms of the piano, organ, and harpsichord.
2. Describe briefly the physiology of singing.
3. Describe the components of a string instrument and discuss various playing techniques.
4. Discuss the resources and manipulative techniques of the electronic composer.
5. The present revival of “obsolete” instruments.
6. The evolution of electronic instruments.
7. Synthesizers and their effect on contemporary music.
8. The modern recording studio: synthesizers, samplers, computers, and MIDI.
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RHYTHM
Objectives
This section introduces the student to the various topics subsumed under the general heading of rhythm.
By using such familiar tunes as America and Mary Had a Little Lamb such terms as beat and the various
meters (duple, triple, quadruple, quintuple, sextuple, and septuple) are defined, as are measure, accent,
and syncopation. The concept of tempo is explained, and a list of the principal tempo indications is
provided. After defining the metronome, the section ends with discussions of Gershwin’s I Got Rhythm
and Dave Brubeck’s Unsquare Dance.
Suggestions
1. Ask the students to find their own heartbeat, the pulse (as a practical matter, correct any
students who do so with their thumbs instead of their first three fingers; nursing students in the class are a
great help, if there are problems). Quoting from the text, “the beat is a regular, recurrent pulsation . . .,”
and they should all be aware of their own heartbeat. This can later be used in the discussion of tempo in
providing a built-in metronome. Organize the pulsations into groupings by adding accents, and discuss
duple, triple, and quadruple meters. Apply these simple steps to the familiar songs suggested in the text,
and then illustrate with musical examples taken from the selections already played in class, or new works.
The recordings have a great variety, including Varèse’s electronic composition which can illustrate a
barely noticeable beat.
2. It is often helpful to demonstrate basic conducting patterns for the meters discussed in the text.
After showing the patterns, encourage the class to conduct along with you. Choose a variety of tempos as
well as meters, and perhaps even some romantic works with obvious rubati. Some simple examples: the
minuet from Mozart’s Eine Kleine Nachtmusik (3/4), Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto No. 5 (4/4), and
Bizet’s Farandole from L’Arlesiénne (C, then 2/4), all contained in the recordings.
3. Remind the students that one dances to rhythm. Have they seen couples on the floor dancing
steps not consistent with the music (a couple dancing a foxtrot during a waltz)? Have the students clap or
tap out some dance rhythms, such as the paso doble (march rhythm), waltz (1,2,3), cha cha (1,2,3+4),
conga (1+2+3Kick), habanera (1,2+3,4), beguine (1+2+3+4+), calypso (one,2,3,four,5,6,seven,8),
huapango (“America,” one,2,3,four,5,6/one,three,five), and tango (1,2,3,4+).
4. The text uses George Gershwin’s I Got Rhythm to illustrate syncopation. Try also having the
class sing the melody both with and without syncopation to reinforce the concept.
5. To illustrate unusual meters, the text discusses Dave Brubeck’s septuple meter Unsquare
Dance. Following the suggestions in the text, have the students tap their feet for the bass part (1, 3, and 5)
while clapping hands for the off-beats (2, 4, 6, and 7). Once they have mastered that pattern, play the
recording, and have the students continue in rhythm. Explain Brubeck’s play on the word “square” both in
relation to jazz in 1961 and the popular square dance tradition. Can one dance in septuple meter? (Can
one dance to The Rite of Spring?)
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss manifestations of rhythm in life and nature.
2. Discuss the characteristics of duple, triple, quadruple, quintuple, sextuple, and septuple meter,
showing the location of secondary accents where appropriate.
3. Outline the tempo changes from “very slow, broad” to “as fast as possible,” using the
appropriate Italian terms.
4. Syncopation as a characteristic feature of jazz.
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5. Three different conductors’ approaches to the tempo of the slow movement of Brahms’s First
Symphony (or any other favorite symphonic movement).
6. The invention of the metronome.
MUSIC NOTATION
Objectives
Using the familiar tune Farmer in the Dell, the various aspects of pitch notation (notes, rests, staves, clefs,
ledger lines, and accidentals), rhythmic notation (stems, flags, beams, dots, ties, and triplets), and meter
are defined and illustrated. The section ends with a page of the orchestral score of Tchaikovsky’s Romeo
and Juliet.
Suggestions
1. The text contains other simple musical examples, especially in the next section (I-5), that can
be used as further examples of printed notation. A vast body of well-known tunes provides an excellent
source of drill material in notation. Supplement the tunes in the book with those of your own choice to
provide additional practice material.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the elements of pitch notation.
2. Discuss the elements of rhythmic notation.
3. Illustrate the time signatures for various duple, triple, and compound meters.
4. Early stages in the development of musical notation.
5. The notation of popular sheet music.
6. The notation of avant-garde concert music.
MELODY
Objectives
Using such familiar tunes as Row, Row, Row your Boat, Mary Had a Little Lamb, Home on the Range,
and America, such aspects of melody as phrase structure, complete and incomplete cadences, and
sequence are defined and illustrated. The student is introduced to the practice of indicating the larger and
smaller formal units of a work by means of capital and lowercase letters. The section ends with a
discussion of Over the Rainbow.
Suggestions
1. Between this section and the last, several familiar old songs have been introduced, and all can
be discussed with regard to phrases, cadences, and form. The text defines melody as “a series of single
tones which add up to a recognizable whole.” If we consider the “recognizable whole” as a thought or
idea, we can build on the students’ knowledge of grammar. A complete thought would be a sentence;
melody can then be considered a musical sentence, the composer’s thought or idea. A part of a
sentence/melody is a phrase, and cadences are punctuation marks. Consider especially incomplete and
complete cadences, drawing an analogy with interruptive and terminal punctuation marks. Discuss also
conjunct and disjunct melodies, and illustrate with the simple folksongs.
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2. Harold Arlen’s Over the Rainbow, from the movie The Wizard of Oz, is presented as an
example of “a beautiful legato melody.” The song’s AABA form is discussed, and can be used as an
introduction to musical organization, or form.
3. For more complex examples of melodies as well as forms, consider Tchaikovsky’s Dance of
the Reed Pipes, which contrasts a melody with wide range, many leaps, and a variety of rhythmic patterns
with a stepwise melody with narrow range and one basic rhythmic pattern. Both melodies are primarily
staccato. Other examples from the recordings suitable for use include Bach’s Air (legato) and
Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony, first movement (sequence and repeated notes).
4. Sequence is defined in this section, and imitation is discussed under texture. To clarify the
distinction between the two, have the students sing simple sequences (such as vocal exercises), and then
imitate each other or the instructor.
Questions and Topics
1. Describe the manner in which musical phrases may be unified.
2. Discuss the symbols used in analyzing musical phrases and sections.
3. Contrast the effect of stepwise melodies with those that move mostly by leaps.
4. Phraseology in music and language.
5. The prevalence of aa'ba' form in familiar tunes.
6. Repeated rhythmic patterns in familiar tunes.
HARMONY
Objectives
This section considers harmony and the various topics traditionally subsumed under this heading. The
concept of harmony is explained, as are harmonic progression, consonance and dissonance, and the
resolution of dissonances. The functions of the tonic and dominant triads are explained, as is the use of
broken chords (arpeggios). A discussion of Chopin’s Prelude in E Minor, Op. 28, no. 4 points out the
coloristic and expressive effects of harmony in this work.
Suggestions
1. Chopin’s Prelude in E minor is presented as an example of the effective use of harmony in a
musical composition. Ask about other factors that contribute to the shape of the piece: the dynamics, the
use of melodic ornamentation, the use of different ranges within the piano keyboard. Explain the concept
of harmonic rhythm (the rate of chord change), and ask about this factor in the Prelude. The text refers to
the “three solemn chords of the closing cadence.” What factors contribute to this solemnity?
2. Make reference to the Performance Perspective in the book regarding Roger Kamien’s
discussion and performance of Chopin’s Prelude in E Minor. You might listen to one or two additional
performances and discuss the similarities and/or differences in each performer’s interpretation. Which
performance do the students find more expressive? Consider contrasts in tempo, dynamic range, and
balance between melody and accompaniment.
3. Ask the class to see who is interested in the guitar. There may be a few students who could
discuss the chords they have been learning to play. Ask them which chord they learned first, and then
which second. Chances are they were tonic-dominant, with the third chord a sub-dominant, allowing
many opportunities for classroom discussion and demonstration of what you can do with just three
chords. Don’t forget to include folksongs and blues in your discussion.
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Questions and Topics
1. Describe the functions of the tonic and dominant triads.
2. Discuss the effects of consonances and dissonances.
3. The acoustical basis for consonance and dissonance.
4. The concept of dissonance in music history.
5. Harmonization traditions of folksongs.
KEY
Objectives
This section defines and illustrates various terms concerning key. Topics covered include tonic and
tonality, the major, minor, and chromatic scales, whole and half steps, key signatures, and modulation.
Suggestions
1. Using America as an example of a melody in major, ask the class to sing the first phrase to give
them a feeling of tonality and the tonic. Intervals can then be introduced, with a reference to the piano
octave illustrated previously in the text.
2. After introducing the concept of major tonality with America or other simple songs, play or
sing the same song in minor, introducing the concepts of minor tonality and key signatures. For
clarification and reinforcement, sing or play the C major and minor scales, then the C major and A minor
for comparison. By comparing C major with A minor, for example, you can also introduce the concept of
relative keys.
3. Chromaticism and modulation can be demonstrated simply on the piano, or by referring to the
examples played in previous classes. With modulations, it might be helpful to have the class hum the
tonic to help them identify the change of key or mode.
4. Some examples of compositions that contrast major and minor that can be discussed are
Tchaikovsky’s Dance of the Reed Pipes, Haydn’s Surprise Symphony, second movement, and Bizet’s
Farandole.
Questions and Topics
1. Compare the interval patterns of the major and minor scales.
2. Discuss the factors that contribute to a sense of tonality.
3. Discuss the structure and expressive effect of the chromatic scale.
4. The historical evolution of the major scale as the basis of western music.
5. Scale patterns other than major, minor, or chromatic.
6. Tonality in nonwestern music.
MUSICAL TEXTURE
Objectives
This section defines and illustrates the three basic types of musical texture: monophonic, polyphonic, and
homophonic. Imitation is defined and illustrated by the familiar round Row, Row, Row your Boat, and
then the song is presented with chordal accompaniment. The Farandole from Bizet’s L’Arlesienne Suite
no. 2 is presented as an example of changing textures.
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Suggestions
1. The most common, and the original meaning of the word texture deals with the weaving of
fibers. Using this analogy of weaving strands of melody into a cloth of sound, we can develop the three
possibilities of musical texture. The text uses Row, Row, Row your Boat as an example, and the class
could sing the song in unison to demonstrate monophonic texture (the acceptance of octaves must be
explained in this regard, assuming there are men and women singing). The song can then be performed as
a round, demonstrating polyphonic texture. Finally, to illustrate homophonic texture, the simple chords in
the book could be used, or if you wish to keep the singing a cappella, ask a few of the basses to sing
“Row, Row, Row” on tonic, dominant, and tonic, while the rest of the class sings the complete melody in
unison.
2. Some additional examples of musical texture from the recordings:
monophonic: Gregorian chant Alleluia: Vidimus stellam, Bach, Little Fugue (opening)
polyphonic, with imitation: Josquin, Ave Maria, Bach, Little Fugue
polyphonic, with different melodies: Bach, Wachet Auf, fourth movement
homophonic, rhythmic accompaniment different from melody: Chopin, Prelude in E Minor
homophonic, rhythmic accompaniment same as melody: Tchaikovsky, Romeo and Juliet
3. A Listening Outline is provided for Bizet’s Farandole, and the work is included in the
recordings. Not only will it illustrate texture, it will reinforce the discussion of minor/major tonalities
from the previous class.
Questions and Topics
1. Explain the difference between contrapuntal texture and imitation.
2. Discuss the varying functions of the accompaniment in homophony.
3. Polyphony in jazz.
4. Texture as an element of variety in _______________ (supply one of the works previously
discussed in class).
5. The difficulty of ascribing the terms “homophonic” or “polyphonic” to certain selected musical
excerpts.
MUSICAL FORM
Objectives
The functions of repetition, contrast, and variation in the delineation of musical form are discussed. Two
of the most common formal types are explained and illustrated: ternary, or ABA, by the Dance of the
Reed Pipes from Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker Suite, and binary, or AB, by the Bourrée from Suite in E
Minor for Lute by Bach.
Suggestions
1. The text refers to some simple melodies that introduced the concepts of form, repetition, and
contrast. At this time you can discuss a basic problem inherent in all creative endeavors: how to provide
variety, and yet maintain unity in a work, whether it be musical, architectural, sculptural, literary, or any
other phase of human creativity. Using the simple ABA form, one can show variety through the
contrasting section, and unity by the return. One can deal similarly with other forms, such as theme and
variations, rondo, or the minuet and trio.
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2. In introducing ABA form, you might return to Wagner’s Act III Prelude to Lohengrin. You
might also ask the students individually or as a class to sing a simple song such as Twinkle, Twinkle, Little
Star, and identify the form.
3. Tchaikovsky’s Dance of the Reed Pipes from The Nutcracker is presented as an example of
ABA' form, and is included in the recordings. If not confusing to the students this early, there are several
videos available of The Nutcracker that can be used to reinforce form, and also introduce ballet. As a
variation of ABA, remind the students of Over the Rainbow, which illustrates AABA form.
4. Regarding binary form, America has already been discussed in the section on key. The text
provides a Listening Outline for the Bourrée from Suite in E Minor for Lute by Bach. Other examples
include the themes of Haydn’s Surprise Symphony and Schubert’s Trout Quintet. Both the Air and the
Gigue in Bach’s Suite no. 3 are in AABB form.
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the functions of repetition, contrast, and variation in musical form.
2. Compare and contrast binary and ternary form.
3. Discuss the difference between literal and developmental repetition.
4. Problems in perceiving form.
5. Solutions to the creative problem of variety versus unity.
6. An analysis of contemporary rock forms.
PERFORMANCE
Objectives
This section defines the role of the performer in bringing music to life. Some problems in performing old
music are raised, and the training and career opportunities of the performing musician are discussed. The
function of the conductor is examined, with a brief discussion of the preparation necessary for success.
The relative merits of live and recorded performance are debated, and criteria for judging performances
are proposed.
Suggestions
1. The suggestion of arranging a visit by your class to an actual rehearsal would be appropriate
here as well. Here the emphasis would be on watching the conductor and the musicians in an actual
working situation. If a live visit is impossible, there are videos and recordings (such as Bruno Walter’s
Birth of a Performance), of actual rehearsals that could be used.
2. Some discussion should be devoted to the question of live versus recorded performances. You
might, for example, ask the students to remember when they saw a live performance of their favorite
group. Was it as technically perfect as the recorded versions they were used to? If not, why not? Was
there a compensating factor, such as presence? Compare, for example, a popular musician with a popular
ball player: while we think the ball player is outstanding if he has a 300 batting average, imagine what we
would think if the musician hit only one out of every three notes! We expect an average of 1,000
regardless of the physical or emotional conditions of the player before and during the concert (i.e., a plane
ride, perhaps jet-lag, a quick taxi to the local fast-food place, then on to the bandstand, play the show,
some quick sleep, probably caught on the next plane or bus ride instead of a comfortable hotel or motel,
then the local fast-food place, then . . .).
3. The text suggests that students compare recordings of the same work by three different
pianists. Choose a work and bring in three different recordings to class. Ask the students to compare each
pianist’s use of dynamics. To what extent does each pianist’s use of the sustaining pedal affect the sound?
To what extent does each pianist make use of tempo rubato? What about the overall choice of tempo for
each performance? If repeats are involved in the music, to what extent does each pianist observe them? If
the music contains trills, how are they played? Ask the class to discuss any indefinable elements that seem
to make one of the three performances superior.
4. In discussing the relative merits of live versus recorded performance, do not overlook the
appeal of outdoor concerts. Why do so many people turn up at an outdoor concert, uncomfortable and
musically unrewarding as they frequently are, when they could easily listen to the same music on
recordings in the comfort of their own homes?
Questions and Topics
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of live and recorded performances.
2. Discuss the functions of the orchestral conductor.
3. Discuss the pros and cons of the career of the professional musical performer.
4. The use of musical instruments before 1600.
5. Vocal embellishments in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
6. Instrumental embellishment in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
7. Improvisation in jazz and nonwestern music.
8. The rise of the concert hall.
MUSICAL STYLE
Objectives
Style is defined as a characteristic way of using melody, rhythm, tone color, dynamics, harmony, texture,
and form; i.e., all the elements treated in this opening part of the text. Approximate dates are given for the
major style periods of western music, and the role of music in society is briefly touched.
Suggestions
1. Style is quite difficult to put into words, and you might consider approaching style visually
before aurally. Choose two works of art with a similar theme, such as Michelangelo’s David and
Gianlorenzo Bernini’s David Slaying Goliath. The timelessness, balance, symmetry, order, logic, and
restraint of the one are clearly contrasted with the emotional violence and “moment-in-time” viewpoint of
the other. Whether you use the terms classical-romantic, Apollonian-Dionysian, or ethos-pathos, the
contrast is the same, and many examples can be found without too much difficulty. In music, for example,
contrast the Dies Irae section of the Mozart Requiem with the same section in other Requiems, such as
the ones by Verdi, Berlioz, or Brahms. The text is the same, but the style of composition is obviously
quite different. Videos are available for the Mozart and Verdi Requiems.
2. Another approach to style would be to compare the treatments given the same song by different
artists. The very pleasant-sounding treatment given Where Have all the Flowers Gone by Peter, Paul, and
Mary, for example, is in marked contrast to the stark monophonic treatment given by Pete Seeger (Pete
Seeger’s Greatest Hits). You might ask the students which they prefer, musically speaking, and then
discuss the message each is trying to convey. Considering that the song is an antiwar protest, does not the
one lull us into a state of complacency, while the other forces us to concentrate on the message?
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3. If the students are already familiar with the styles of various European and American
composers, consider playing some of the Variations for Piano on Mary Had a Little Lamb by Edward
Ballantine.
Questions and Topics
1. What are the elements whose sum forms a musical style?
2. Describe some of the social uses of music.
3. The social uses of music in contemporary American society.
4. Style periods in the visual arts compared to those in music.
5. The role of pictorial evidence in the history of music.
