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Chapter 8: Uncertainty Reduction Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
Chapter 8
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
• Sometimes called Initial Interaction Theory, Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) was
originated by Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese in 1975.
o Berger and Calabrese’s goal in constructing this theory was to explain how
communication is used to reduce uncertainties between strangers engaging in their
first conversation together.
• Berger and Calabrese posited that, as implicit researchers, people are motivated both to
predict and to explain what goes on in initial encounters.
o Prediction can be defined as the ability to forecast the behavioral options likely to be
chosen from a range of possible options available to oneself or to a relational partner.
o Explanation refers to attempts to interpret the meaning of past actions in a
relationship.
• Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949) note in their information theory that
uncertainty exists whenever the number of possible alternatives in a given situation is high
and the likelihood of their occurrence is relatively equal.
• The current version of the initial theory suggests that there are two types of uncertainty in
initial encounters: cognitive and behavioral.
o Cognitive uncertainty refers to the degree of uncertainty associated with beliefs and
attitudes.
o Behavioral uncertainty pertains to “the extent to which behavior is predictable in a
given situation” (Berger and Bradac, 1982, p. 7)
o Self-disclosure refers to the act of revealing private information about oneself to
another.
• Berger and Calabrese (1975) argued that uncertainty reduction has both proactive and
retroactive processes.
o Proactive uncertainty reduction comes into play when a person thinks about
communication options before actually engaging with another person.
o Retroactive uncertainty reduction consists of attempts to explain behavior after the
encounter itself.
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Chapter 8: Uncertainty Reduction Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
• Berger and Calabrese theorized that uncertainty is related to other concepts rooted in
communication and relational development: verbal output, nonverbal warmth, information
seeking, self-disclosure, reciprocity of disclosure, similarity, and liking.
o Each of these concepts is related to uncertainty.
• URT posits a dynamic movement of interpersonal relationships in their initial stages.
o This theory has been described as an example of original theorizing in the field of
communication (Miller, 1981) because it employs concepts (such as information
seeking, self-disclosure) that are specifically relevant to studying communication
behavior.
• URT attempts to place communication as the cornerstone of human behavior, and to this
end a number of assumptions about human behavior and communication underlie the
theory.
II. Assumptions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory
• Theories are frequently grounded in assumptions that reflect the worldview of the theorists.
• The following assumptions frame Uncertainty Reduction Theory:
o People experience uncertainty in interpersonal settings and it generates cognitive
o The quantity and nature of information that people share change through time.
o It is possible to predict people’s behavior in a lawlike fashion.
o Because differing expectations exist for interpersonal occasions, it is reasonable to
conclude that people are uncertain or even nervous about meeting others.
• Uncertainty Reduction Theory suggests that information seeking is a primary method to
reduce uncertainty and attain some sort of predictability.
• According to Berger and Calabrese (1975), generally speaking, most people begin
interaction in an entry phase, defined as the beginning stage of a communication
future.
Chapter 8: Uncertainty Reduction Theory
III. Key Concepts of URT: The Axiom and Theorem
• Embedded in Uncertainty Reduction Theory—unlike any other communication theory—
are a number of different tenets or conclusions.
o Each has been identified as an area for research exploration by Berger (2015) and
Calabrese (1975).
A. Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory
• Berger and Calabrese began with a collection of axioms, or truisms drawn from past
research and common sense.
o These axioms, or what some researchers might call propositions, require no
further proof than the statement itself.
• Axioms are the heart of the theory.
o They have to be accepted as valid because they are the building blocks for
everything else in the theory.
• Each axiom presents a relationship between uncertainty (the central theoretical concept)
and one other concept.
• URT originally posited seven axioms.
o Axiom 1: As the amount of verbal communication between strangers increases,
the level of uncertainty for each interactant in the relationship decreases.
▪ As uncertainty is further reduced, the amount of verbal communication
increases.
o Axiom 2: As nonverbal affiliative expressiveness increases, uncertainty levels
decrease in an initial interaction situation.
▪ In addition, decreases in uncertainty level will cause increases in nonverbal
affiliative expressiveness.
o Axiom 3: High levels of uncertainty cause increases in information-seeking
behavior.
▪ As uncertainty levels decline, information-seeking behavior decreases.
o Axiom 4: High levels of uncertainty in a relationship cause decreases in the
intimacy level of communication content.
▪ Low levels of uncertainty produce high levels of intimacy.
o Axiom 5: High levels of uncertainty produce high rates of reciprocity.
▪ Low levels of uncertainty produce low levels of reciprocity.
o Axiom 6: Similarities between people reduce uncertainty, whereas dissimilarities
increase uncertainty.
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Chapter 8: Uncertainty Reduction Theory
B. Theorems of Uncertainty Reduction
• Berger and Calabrese combined all seven axioms in every possible pairwise
combination to derive 21 theorems.
o Theorems are theoretical statements that are derived from axioms.
negative relationship with the third, they should have a negative relationship with
each other.
o If two variables each have a negative relationship with a third, they should have a
positive relationship with each other.
• This process allows URT to be a comprehensive theory.
IV. Expansions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory
• Many researchers have tested URT and based their studies on the tenets of the theory.
o URT has been expanded and modified in a few areas: antecedent conditions,
strategies, developed relationships, social media, and context.
A. Antecedent Conditions
• Berger (1979) has suggested that three antecedent (prior) conditions exist when seeking
uncertainty reduction.
o The first condition occurs when the other person has the potential to reward or
punish.
o A second antecedent condition exists when the other person behaves contrary to
expectations.
o The third and final condition exists when a person expects future interactions with
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Chapter 8: Uncertainty Reduction Theory
o Active strategies exist when an observer engages in some type of effort other
than direct contact to find out about another person.
o Interactive strategies occur when the observer and the other person engage in
direct contact or face-to-face interaction—that is, conversation that may include
self-disclosures, direct questioning, and other information-seeking tactics.
• Reactivity searching is a passive strategy involving watching a person doing
o It may function dialectically within relationships; that is, there may be a tension
between reducing and increasing uncertainty in developed relationships.
• Uncertainty and uncertainty reduction processes operate in dating relationships in
somewhat the same ways that Berger and Calabrese theorize they do in initial
interactions.
o One study (Mongeau, Jacobsen, & Donnerstein, 2007) found that reducing
uncertainty was cited as a primary goal in dating.
• Another example of how Uncertainty Reduction Theory has been extended into
developed relationships is found in the research of Malcolm Parks and Mara Adelman
(1983).
o Parks and Adelman studied the social networks (friends and family members) of
an individual and indicate that these third-party networks can be quite important
information sources about a romantic partner.
• Based on the expansion into established relationships, Berger and Gudykunst (1991)
o This uncertainty was labeled relational uncertainty and defined as lack of
certainty about the future and the status of the relationship.
D. Social Media
• Artemio Ramirez, Jr. and Joseph Walther (2009) and others (e.g., Flanagin, 2007;
Tidwell & Walther, 2002) have noted that URT can be applied to computer-mediated
2002) have noted that Googling forms a special case of active information-seeking
strategy they call extractive strategy.
E. Context
• Research shows that uncertainty varies across cultures.
o The expansion and adaptation of URT to culture is credited to William Gudykunst
(1993, 2005).
• Gudykunst and Tsukasa Nishida (1986a) discovered differences in low- and high-
context cultures.
o According to Edward T. Hall (1977), low-context cultures are those in which
meaning is found in the explicit code or message.
o In high-context cultures, non-verbal messages play a more significant role, and
most of the meaning of a message is internalized by listeners or resides in the
context.
• With respect to research on low- and high-context cultures, Gudykunst and Nishida
(1986b) found that frequency of communication predicts uncertainty reduction in low-
context cultures, but not in high-context cultures.
• A concept similar to uncertainty reduction is uncertainty avoidance, which is an
attempt to shun or avoid ambiguous situations (Hofstede; Smith, 2015).
o In other words, uncertainty avoidance refers to a person’s tolerance for
uncertainty.
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Chapter 8: Uncertainty Reduction Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
V. Integration, Critique, and Closing
• Over a decade after the publication of the original theory, Berger (1987) admitted that
Uncertainty Reduction Theory “contains some propositions of dubious validity” (p. 40).
• As one thinks about how useful URT is, one should keep the following criteria in mind:
utility and heurism.
A. Utility
• Some researchers believe that the major assumptions of the theory are flawed.
o Michael Sunnafrank (1986) argues that reducing uncertainty about the self and
another in an initial encounter is not an individual’s primary concern.
o Instead, Sunnafrank argues, “a more primary goal is the maximization of
relational outcomes” (p. 9).
o Even Berger (1987) has admitted some validity problems, yet he is not willing to
give up on the theory.
B. Heurism
• URT has been integrated into research examining small groups (Booth-Butterfield,
Booth-Butterfield, & Koester, 1988) as well as research in doctor–patient
communication (Perrault & Silk, 2015) and computer- mediated communication (Lundy
& Drouin, 2016).
o It is clear that URT has been expanded into many contexts, making it highly
1. “Who Am I?”: Reducing Uncertainty
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Chapter 8: Uncertainty Reduction Theory
Objective: To increase student awareness of the role nonverbal behaviors and verbal
questions play in reducing one’s uncertainty about a topic or person
Materials: Tape and index cards with names printed on them for each student
Directions:
a. On each card, print the name of a person in large letters. This can be a fictional
person (e.g., Mickey Mouse, the Tooth Fairy), a real person (e.g., Abe Lincoln,
Marilyn Monroe), or a category of persons (e.g., used car salesman, dentist).
b. Tape a card to the back of each student. Do not let the student see the card you tape
to his or her back.
c. Provide students with the following instructions:
• “When I indicate it is time to do so, please get up and examine the new
‘identities’ taped on one another’s backs. You may respond to what you see on
another person’s back by engaging in only those nonverbal behaviors that you
would use if you were meeting that person or group of persons. Only nonverbal
e. After another few minutes, provide students with these instructions:
• “If you still have not guessed your ‘identity,’ you may engage in conversation
with people in the room. Try to ask questions or gain clues about your
‘identity.’ Once you have guessed your identity, please be seated.”
f. Lead a class discussion focusing on these questions:
• Are nonverbal cues typically sufficient in reducing our uncertainty about
others?
2. Case Analysis: Edie and Malcolm
Objective: To assist students in applying the various strategies available for reducing
uncertainty in initial relationships: passive, active, and interactive
Materials: Case study at the beginning of Chapter 8 in the textbook
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Chapter 8: Uncertainty Reduction Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
Directions:
a. Instruct students to review the case of Edie Banks and Malcolm Rogers.
b. In groups, have students identify passive, active, and interactive strategies that Edie
and Malcolm could use to reduce their uncertainty about one another.
c. Have students discuss the effectiveness of various passive, active, and interactive
strategies that they and others have used in initial interactions. Be sure to have them
point out times or situations when the various strategies have been ineffective, as
well as times they have been effective.
b. Assign students to groups, and have them compare the strategies they generated. Ask
them to assess the effectiveness of the various strategies and to devise a plan to assist
people in reducing their uncertainty in each of the situations.
c. Ask groups to share their plans with the class.
“Strategies for Reducing Uncertainty” Worksheet
Directions: Generate a list of strategies that could be used to reduce a person’s uncertainty in
each of the following situations.
Situation
Strategies
You are in charge of a new student orientation
for your college or university. New students
will be visiting your campus for a one-day
orientation to college life. What strategies
would you use or what information would you
share to reduce their uncertainty about life on
campus?
You have been promoted to the position of
human resource director of your company. As
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Chapter 8: Uncertainty Reduction Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
HR director, it is your responsibility to ensure
that employees are provided with the
information necessary to assist them in
succeeding in their new jobs. What strategies
would you use or what information would you
share to reduce their uncertainty about life in
your organization?
4. Debating the Accuracy of URT
Objective: To help students gain a greater understanding of URT through rhetorical
criticism
Materials: None
Directions: