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Chapter 7: Expectancy Violations Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
Chapter 7
Expectancy Violations Theory
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
• An important part of any discussion of communication is the role of nonverbal
communication.
• To understand nonverbal communication and its effects on messages in a conversation,
Judee Burgoon developed Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT).
o The theory was originally called the Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory, but
Burgoon later dropped the word nonverbal because the theory now examines issues
beyond the domain of nonverbal communication.
• Burgoon’s (1978) early writing on EVT integrated specific instances of nonverbal
communication; namely, personal space and people’s expectations of conversational
distance.
II. Space Relations
• The study of a person’s use space is called proxemics.
o Proxemics includes the way people use space in their conversations as well as
perceptions of another’s use of space.
o Many people take spatial relations between communicators for granted, yet, people’s
use of space can seriously affect their ability to achieve desired goals.
• Burgoon (1978) starts her original work on EVT from the premise that humans have two
competing needs: affiliation and personal space.
o Personal space, according to Burgoon, can be defined as “an invisible, variable
volume of space surrounding an individual which defines that individual’s preferred
distance from others” (p. 130).
A. Proxemic Zones
• After studying North Americans (in the Northeast), anthropologist Edward Hall (1992,
1996) claimed that four proxemic zones exist—intimate, personal, social, and public—
and each zone is used for different reasons.
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Chapter 7: Expectancy Violations Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
o Hall includes ranges of spatial distance and the behaviors that are appropriate for
each zone.
• Intimate distance zone includes behaviors that exist in a range encompassing from 0 to
18 inches.
o Hall (1966) notes that this includes behaviors that range from touch (for instance,
making love) to being able to observe a person’s facial characteristics.
• Personal distance zone includes those behaviors that exist in an area ranging from 18
inches to 4 feet.
o Personal distance is likely to be used for one’s family and friends.
• With a proxemic range spanning 4–12 feet, the social distance category characterizes
many conversations in U.S. culture, for instance, between and among coworkers.
o Hall (1966) contends that the closer social distance is usually reserved for those in
a casual social setting.
• The range encompassing 12 feet and beyond is considered to be public distance.
o The close phase of public distance is reserved for fairly formal discussions, for
instance, in-class discussion between teachers and students.
B. Territoriality
• Territoriality is a person’s ownership of an area or object.
• Three types of territories exist: primary, secondary, and public (Altman, 1975; Lyman,
1990).
o Primary territories signal an individual’s exclusive domain.
o Secondary territories signal some sort of personal connection to an area or
object.
▪ Secondary territories are not exclusive to an individual, but the individual
▪ Labels (identification symbols)
▪ Offensive displays (demonstrating aggressive looks and behaviors)
▪ Tenure (being there first and staying the longest)
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Chapter 7: Expectancy Violations Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
III. Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory
• Expectancy Violations Theory is rooted in how messages are presented to others and the
kinds of behaviors others undertake during a conversation.
• Three assumptions guide the theory:
o Expectancies drive human interaction.
o Expectancies can be defined as the cognitions and behaviors anticipated and
prescribed in a conversation with another person.
▪ Expectancies, therefore, necessarily include individuals’ nonverbal and verbal
behavior.
▪ Judee Burgoon and Jerold Hale (1988) contend that two types of expectations
exist: pre-interactional and interactional.
❖ Pre-interactional expectations include the types of interactional
knowledge and skills the communicator possesses before he or she enters
a conversation.
▪ Judee Burgoon and Joseph Walther (1990) expanded the original understanding
of EVT via personal space to other areas of nonverbal communication,
including touch and posture.
❖ They suggest that the attractiveness of another influences the evaluation
of expectancies.
• Burgoon originally felt that deviations from expectations have consequences.
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
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prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
o These deviations, or violations, have what is called “arousal value” (Burgoon, 1978,
p. 133).
o By this she means that when a person’s expectations are violated, the person’s
interest or attention is aroused, and he or she uses a particular mechanism to cope
with the violation.
o When arousal occurs, one’s interest or attention to the deviation increases and one
pays less attention to the message and more attention to the source of the arousal
(Bachman and Guerrero, 2006; LaPoire and Burgoon, 1996).
o Burgoon and Hale (1988) later termed this “mental alertness” or an “orienting
response,” in which attention is diverted toward the source of the deviation.
• A person may be both cognitively and physically aroused.
o Cognitive arousal is an alertness or an orientation to a violation.
o Physical arousal includes those behaviors that a communicator employs during an
interaction.
• Most EVT studies have investigated cognitive arousal (via self-report inventories), yet
little research has examined physiological arousal.
o One interesting study that examined physical arousal in conversation was undertaken
by Beth LaPoire and Judee Burgoon (1996).
▪ Specifically, they asked college students to engage in a practice medical
interview.
▪ During the interaction, the researchers studied heart rate, skin temperature, and
o People may either reward or punish a threat.
VI. Violation Valence
• Violation valence refers to the positive or negative assessment of an unexpected behavior.
o Violation valence focuses on the deviation of an expectation.
Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the
prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the
prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
• In particular, researchers who employ EVT in their work have investigated topics that
make a difference in the lives of people, whether related to relationship challenges
(Wright and Roloff, 2015) or cell phone usage (Miller-Ott and Kelly, 2105).
C. Testability
• Some scholars (e.g., Sparks and Greene, 1992) have criticized the clarity of concepts in
Burgoon’s theory, suggesting that testability may be problematic.
o Sparks and Greene comment that self-perceptions of arousal are not valid
measures.
• Generally speaking, EVT is a testable theory.
decades since EVT’s inception.
o The theory has been incorporated in a myriad of studies that span a number of
diverse topic areas.
Classroom Activities
1. Identifying Our Communication Expectancies
Objective: To assist students in identifying their own expectations for verbal and nonverbal
communication behaviors in a variety of contexts or situations
Materials: “Identifying Our Communication Expectancies” worksheet (see below)
Directions:
a. Instruct students to complete the worksheet by themselves.
b. Have students form groups to discuss their responses. They can focus on the
following questions:
• Did the members of your group hold different expectations for the various
communication situations? What factors may have influenced these
expectations?
• How does one’s culture shape expectations about appropriate and inappropriate
communication behaviors?
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Chapter 7: Expectancy Violations Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
“Identifying Our Communication Expectancies” Worksheet
Directions: List at least three verbal and/or nonverbal expectations you have for each of
the following situations.
Expectations for Communication
Meeting a person who
is interviewing you for
a potential job
1.
2.
3.
Approaching a teacher
and asking for
additional time to
complete an
assignment
1.
2.
3.
Meeting your
significant other’s
parents for the first
time
1.
2.
3.
Discussing the
disarray of your
apartment or
dormitory room with a
roommate
1.
2.
3.
Asking your parents
for permission to
borrow the car
1.
2.
3.
Talking with a friend
who just received
news that a
grandparent has passed
away
1.
2.
3.
2. “This Is My Space”: Identifying Primary, Secondary, and Public Territories
Objective: To increase student awareness of the territories of their college environments
and the markers used to distinguish these types of territories
Materials: None
3. “You’ve Violated My Expectations”
Objective: To engage students in analyzing the cognitive and physical arousal that
accompanies deviations from expectations
Materials: “You’ve Violated My Expectations” worksheet (see below)
Directions:
a. Instruct students to complete the worksheet according to the instructions provided.
b. Lead a discussion of the worksheet, focusing on these questions:
• What role did communicator reward valence play in the cognitive and physical
arousal you experienced with each expectancy violation?
• How were each of the violations evaluated with regard to violation valence?
“You’ve Violated My Expectations” Worksheet
Directions: Generate a list of five situations in which another person violated your
expectations for communication behaviors. For each situation, try to identify the cognitive
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Chapter 7: Expectancy Violations Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
arousal you experienced. (When were you aware of the violation? What thoughts went
through your mind as a result of the violation?) You should also identify your physical
reaction to the violation.
Violation
Cognitive Arousal
Physical Arousal
4. The Pop Culture Connection: Seinfeld’s “Close Talker”
Objective: To give students an opportunity to apply the concepts of EVT to a pop culture
example
Materials: Video of Seinfeld episode 518 (“The Raincoats, Part 1”)
• How do the other characters react to these violations?
• Is there evidence of physical arousal?
• Is there evidence of cognitive arousal?
5. Violating Classroom Expectancies
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Chapter 7: Expectancy Violations Theory
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
Objective: To provide students with a tangible example of EVT at work
Materials: None
Directions:
a. Conduct the class using space in a way that is inconsistent with your class norms.
• If the class is in a lecture hall, do not stand behind the lectern; walk up and
down the aisles, and sit in rows with students.
• If the class is in a smaller room, consider lecturing from a different location
(e.g., the back of the room, the side of the room, or in the area generally
• Were students distracted by these violations?
• What were the students’ reactions to these violations?
6. Theory Application in Groups
Objective: To examine the way threat thresholds can vary from one individual to another
Materials: None
Directions: