1
Chapter 14: Groupthink
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
Chapter 14
Groupthink
Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
• Participating in groups is a fact of life.
• Irving Janis, in his book Victims of Groupthink (1972), explains what takes place in groups
where group members are highly agreeable with one another.
• Groupthink is defined as a way of deliberating that group members use when their desire
for unanimity overrides their motivation to assess all available plans of action.
• Janis contends group members frequently engage in a style of deliberating in which
consensus seeking outweighs good sense.
• In the development of Groupthink, Janis analyzed five matters of significant national
importance: (1) the preparedness policies of the U.S. Navy at Pearl Harbor in 1941, (2) the
decision to pursue the North Korean Army onto its own territory by President Eisenhower,
(3) the decision by President Kennedy to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs shortly after Fidel
Castro established a Communist government, (4) the decision to continue the Vietnam War
by President Johnson, and (5) the Watergate cover-up by President Nixon.
II. Assumptions of Groupthink
• Groupthink is a theory associated with small group communication.
o Janis focuses his work on problem-solving groups and task-oriented groups,
whose main purpose is to make decisions and give policy recommendations.
o Other activities of small groups include information sharing, socializing, relating to
people and groups external to the group, educating new members, defining roles, and
telling stories (Galanes and Adams, 2013; Rothwell, 2016).
• The following are three critical assumptions that guide the theory:
o Conditions in groups promote high cohesiveness.
o Group problem solving is primarily a unified process.
o Groups and group decision making are frequently complex.
• The first assumption of Groupthink pertains to a characteristic of group life: cohesiveness.
o Cohesiveness is defined as the extent to which group members are willing to work
together.
2
Chapter 14: Groupthink
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
o Cohesion arises from a group’s attitudes, values, and patterns of behavior.
o Cohesion is the glue that keeps a group intact.
o Although one may have been a member of a cohesive group, it can be difficult to
measure cohesiveness.
• The second assumption examines the process of problem solving in small groups: It is
input rather than risk rejection.
o According to Gouran, when group members do participate, fearing rejection, they are
likely “to attach greater importance to preservation of the group than to the issues
under consideration” (p. 100).
• The third assumption underscores the nature of most problem-solving and task-oriented
groups to which people belong: They are usually complex.
o Small group members must continue to understand the many alternatives available to
them and be able to distinguish among these alternatives.
o In addition, members must not only understand the task at hand but also the people
who provide input into the task.
o Social psychologist Robert Zajonc (1965) studied what many people have figured out
innately aroused, which helps or hinders the performance of tasks.
o Nickolas Cottrell and his research team (Cottrell, Wack, Sekerak, and Rittle, 1968)
later clarified the findings of Zajonc and argued that what leads people to task
accomplishment is knowing that an individual will be evaluated by other individuals.
o Marvin Shaw (1981) and the team of Isa Engleberg and Dianna Wynn (2013) discuss
additional issues pertaining to groups. They note that a wide range of influences exist
in a small group—age of group members, competitive nature of group members, size
of the group, intelligence of group members, gender composition of the group, and
leadership styles that emerge in the group.
• Katherine Adams and Gloria Galanes (2013) effectively argue that groups are better at
homogeneity.
• Quality of effort and the quality of thinking are essential in group decision making.
III. What Comes Before: Antecedent Conditions of Groupthink
Chapter 14: Groupthink
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
A. Group Cohesiveness
• One may be wondering how cohesiveness can lead to groupthink. One reason this may
be perplexing is that cohesion differs from one group to another, and different levels of
cohesion produce different results.
o Greater satisfaction is associated with increasing cohesiveness.
• Highly cohesive groups may also bring about a troubling occurrence: groupthink. Janis
(1982) argues that highly cohesive groups exert great pressure on their members to
conform to group standards.
• Janis believes that as groups reach high degrees of cohesiveness, this euphoria tends to
stifle other opinions and alternatives.
• Cohesiveness frequently leads to conformity, and conformity is a primary route to
groupthink.
• When the effectiveness or consequences of a group’s decision remains secondary to a
group’s cohesion, Janis contends that the group is prone to groupthink.
B. Structural Factors
• Janis notes that specific structural characteristics, or faults, promote groupthink. They
include (1) insulation of the group, (2) lack of impartial leadership, (3) lack of clear
procedures for decisions, and (4) homogeneity of group members’ backgrounds.
• Group insulation refers to a group’s ability to be unaffected by the outside world and
its happenings.
• A lack of impartial leadership means that group members are led by people who have
a personal interest in the outcome.
• A structural fault that can lead to groupthink is a lack of decision-making procedures
and similarity of group members can lead to groupthink.
o Some groups have few, if any, procedures for decision making; failing to have
previously established norms for evaluation of problems can foster groupthink.
o Other groups may simply follow what they have observed and experienced in
previous groups.
• Another structural fault is the homogeneity of members’ backgrounds. Janis (1982)
notes that “lack of disparity in social background and ideology among the members of a
cohesive group makes it easier for them to concur on whatever proposals are put forth
by the leader” (p. 250).
C. Group Stress
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
• Stress occurs when group members are influenced by issues, resources, or events both
within and external to the group.
o When stress is high, group members may not see any reasonable solution and
therefore, rally around their leader.
o When decision makers are under great stress imposed by forces outside the group,
faulty decision making happens.
IV. Symptoms of Groupthink
• Preexisting conditions lead groups to concurrence seeking. Concurrence seeking occurs
when groups try to reach consensus in their final decision.
• Janis (1982) observes three categories of symptoms of Groupthink: overestimation of the
group, closed-mindedness, and pressures toward uniformity.
A. Overestimation of the Group
• An overestimation of the group includes those behaviors that suggest the group
believes it is more than it is.
decision making must, therefore, be good.
B. Closed-Mindedness
• When a group is closed-minded, it ignores outside influences on the group.
o Groups in crisis frequently engage in out-group stereotypes, which are
stereotyped perceptions of rivals or enemies. These stereotypes underscore the
fact that any adversaries are either too weak or too stupid to counter offensive
tactics.
o Collective rationalization refers to the situation in which group members ignore
warnings that might prompt them to reconsider their thoughts and actions before
they reach a final decision.
C. Pressures Toward Uniformity
• The pressure toward uniformity can be enormous for some groups. Janis believed that
Chapter 14: Groupthink
some groups who go along to get along may be setting themselves up for groupthink.
• The following are the four symptoms in this category:
o Self-censorship refers to group members’ tendency to minimize their doubts and
counterarguments. Janis argues that silencing one’s own opposing views and
using in-group rhetoric further bolster the decisions of the group.
o Illusion of unanimity suggests that silence is consent.
o Groups in crisis may include self-appointed mindguards—group members who
shield the group from adverse information.
o Pressures on dissenters refers to the pressure placed on any group member who
expresses opinions, viewpoints, or commitments that are contrary to the majority
opinion.
V. (Group)Think About It: It’s All Around U.S.
• Groupthink decision making has been evidenced in a number of domestic and global
examples, including Watergate (1972), the Columbia (2003) and Challenger (1986)
tragedies, the Gulf War (1991), Hurricane Katrina (2005), the cover-up of child sexual
abuse at Penn State University (2012), and ISIS (2015).
• On a smaller scale, groupthink occurs all around in “less–critical” small groups. Decisions
such as whether one will attend college, for instance, may have been prone to groupthink.
VI. Think Before You Act: Ways to Prevent Groupthink
• Janis (1989; Herek, Janis, and Huth, 1987) suggests that groups engage in vigilant decision
making, which involves (1) looking at the range of objectives group members wish to
achieve, (2) developing and reviewing action plans and alternatives, (3) exploring the
consequences of each alternative, (4) analyzing previously rejected action plans when new
information emerges, and (5) having a contingency plan for failed suggestions.
• To avoid oversimplifying the groupthink problem, ‘t Hart (1990) has proposed four general
recommendations for groups who may be prone to Groupthink: (1) Require oversight and
control, (2) embrace whistle-blowing in the group, (3) allow for objection, and (4) balance
consensus and majority rule.
o First, ‘t Hart believes that one way to enhance group decision making is to impose
some external oversight and control.
▪ Accountability may take the form of a committee that serves to enforce control
6
Chapter 14: Groupthink
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
▪ ‘t Hart theorizes that such committees prompt group members to challenge
collective rationalizations and inaccurate perceptions.
o In addition to accountability, ‘t Hart proposes that whistle-blowing be embraced in a
group’s culture.
▪ Group members “should be encouraged to voice concerns rather than to
voluntarily suppress them. scholars such as ‘t Hart and Wim Vandekerckhove
(2012) advocate that groups protect these sorts of whistle-blowers because
groups usually need dissenting voices when decisions have lasting and
significant consequences.
o A third suggestion by ‘t Hart is that groups allow conscientious objectors, or group
members who refuse to participate in the decision-making process because it would
violate their conscience.
▪ He reasons that groupthink causes groups to downplay the moral implications
of their decisions, and if conscientious objectors know that they can exit a
conversation based on moral or ethical grounds, then they may be more likely
to speak up.
o Finally, ‘t Hart advocates that groups not require consensus but work instead toward
a majority of support.
▪ ‘t Hart believes that groups should strive toward consensus but be prepared for
majority support.
VII. Integration, Critique, and Closing
A. Scope
• Groupthink principles can be applied to several types of groups, Janis was clear in his
original conceptualization in applying Groupthink solely to decision-making groups in
crisis periods; he does not readily apply his thinking to every group type.
o Although the theory has been applied to groups as diverse as presidential advisors
and ice hockey teams, the focus has been in those groups that are decision-making
groups. Therefore, the scope of the theory could be defined as narrow.
B. Testability
• Group scholars have pointed to some validity problems with the theory, calling into
question its testability.
• For instance, Jeanne Longley and Dean Pruitt (1980) criticize the validity of the theory.
They argue that half of the symptoms of Groupthink are not associated with
concurrence seeking—a key feature of the theory.
Chapter 14: Groupthink
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
C. Heurism
• The theory of Groupthink is a heuristic undertaking; the theory and many of its elements
have been employed in a number of studies and have enjoyed the attention of many
communication and social psychology scholars.
• The theory has also generated a number of assumptions about group behavior, and
Groupthink remains an important part of the literature on group decision making.
D. Test of Time
• The theory of Groupthink has withstood the test of time.
• Given that government-policy decisions will always exist and given that many
governmental leaders surround themselves with individuals who are typically conflict-
avoidant, future instances of Groupthink remain rather high.
Classroom Activities
Materials: The film Twelve Angry Men
Directions:
1. As a class, view the film Twelve Angry Men.
2. Have students identify scenes that illustrate the following symptoms of groupthink:
• Illusion of invulnerability
• Belief in the inherent morality of the group
• Out-group stereotyping
• Collective rationalization
• Self-censorship
• Illusion of unanimity
• Self-appointed mindguards
• Pressures on dissenters
2. Two Heads Are Better Than One! The Alphabet Game
8
Chapter 14: Groupthink
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
Objective: The objective is to illustrate the belief that “two heads are better than one” and
the importance of tapping into a variety of information sources and opinions when making
decisions.
2. When the time is up, have students exchange papers. If the student’s partner
3. Assign students to small groups, and have them repeat the activity. Provide groups
4. Have groups exchange papers and tally points for the names they recognize.
5. Discuss the ease with which the task was completed when more people worked to
complete the worksheet.
“Two Heads Are Better Than One”
Worksheet
Directions: Write the names of famous persons using the letters provided in the matrix
below. Each person should be famous so that he or she is recognized by the majority of
your classmates. Each person’s first name should begin with the letter in column 1, and the
last name should begin with the letter in column 2. You will have a time limit to complete
this task. Wait until your instructor tells you to begin.
First
Name
Last
Name
Person
Points
A
G
J
I
R
P
V
S
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
D
Q
S
W
N
N
K
L
C
R
Q
A
P
E
T
C
G
B
M
V
E
D
3. The Survivors
Objective: The objective is to engage students in group decision-making, and analyze the
symptoms of groupthink that emerge during this decision process.
Materials: “The Survivors” worksheet (see below)
Directions:
1. Divide students into groups of six to eight members to complete the task described
on “The Survivors” worksheet.
2. Lead a class discussion focusing on the following questions:
• What criteria did your group use to determine who would be saved?
• What symptoms of groupthink emerged during the exercise?
“The Survivors”
Worksheet
Directions: Have each member of your group assume the role of one of the persons on the
10
Chapter 14: Groupthink
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
list below. Review the list, and decide who will fill each role. If there are more roles than
members in your group, several of you should assume two roles. It is your responsibility to
take an active role in the decision-making process.
Problem: You are on a sinking ship. In less than 15 minutes, the ship will sink. There is a
lifeboat available, but there is only room for five people on the lifeboat. As a group, you
must decide who will be saved. Remember: The maximum number of people who can be
saved is five. It is your responsibility to argue why you should or should not be saved!
Jessica is a 31-year-old single mother of three young children. After the death of her
husband a year ago, Jessica decided to take a much-needed vacation. Her sister is caring
for her children while she is away.
Xjang is a 29-year-old medical student from China who is traveling to Kosovo to perform
reconstructive surgery on young children who were injured in the recent uprising. He has
won an award for his generosity in providing free medical care for needy children.
Wanda is a 52-year-old woman who is traveling to begin work as a missionary. She will be
working with her husband, Charles. They have two grown children and four grandchildren.
Charles is a 54-year-old man who is traveling with his wife Wanda to begin work as a
missionary. They have two grown children and four grandchildren.
Peter is an 8-year-old boy who was recently orphaned when his parents were killed in a car
accident. He is traveling to Europe to live with his grandmother, Ellen, who is his only
surviving relative.
Ellen is a 62-year-old woman who is returning to Europe with her grandson, Peter. She will
be responsible for raising Peter after the death of her daughter and son-in-law in a car
she has recently been diagnosed with breast cancer herself.
William is the 48-year-old CEO of a multinational corporation. He began his company at
the age of 18. He has donated more than $5 million for AIDS and cancer research, and he
11
Chapter 14: Groupthink
West, Introducing Communication Theory, 6e
personally provides college scholarships for approximately 20 students each year.