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CHAPTER QUESTION 5: WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO FORIVE MANAGERS AND
CO-WORKERS? DESCRIBE ROBERT ENRIGHT’S FOUR PHASES OF
FORGIVENESS.
IMPORTANCE OF FORGIVENESS
Violated trust between and among managers and employees needs to be repaired.
Similar to the rehabilitation process for work rule violations, apply the “AAA” method –
admit, apologize, and make amends.
The other half of the harm equation involves the person being harmed forgiving the
initiator of the harm.
Managers must exemplify the value of forgiveness and coach employees on how to
forgive.
This is particularly important if the work group is recovering from a dishonest or abusive
manager because employee resentment will be projected on the manager’s replacement.
The new manager needs to acknowledge, and heal, the harm caused by the previous
manager, rather than ignore the harm, and workgroup members need to forgive their
previously morally imperfect manager.
FORGIVENESS PROCESS
Robert Enright of the International Forgiveness Institute defines forgiveness as a gift
freely given in the face of moral wrong, without denying the wrong itself. Forgiveness
recognizes the inherent worth of the wrongdoer and replaces the resentment a violated
person may feel with goodwill, a process that increases the forgiver’s self-esteem.
Enright offers a four-phase model that ethical managers can apply to guide employees
through the forgiveness process. The process begins with personal awareness of the
negative impacts stemming from the harm-generating behavior.
oPhase 1: Uncovering Phase. The violated person recognizes that the unjust
situation has created unhealthy anger and emotional pain.
oPhase 2: Decision Phase. The violated person explores the personal pain or
damage that would continue by not forgiving the wrongdoer, compared to the
positive changes that could occur by forgiving.
oPhase 3: Work Phase. The violated person grieves over the unfairness of the
wrongdoing, reframes the wrongdoer as a person of inherent human worth
deserving of forgiveness, and practices the virtues of goodness, service, mercy,
and generosity by forgiving the wrongdoer.
oPhase 4: Outcome Phase. The forgiving person experiences the emotionally
healing benefits of forgiveness and finds meaning in the previous suffering.
DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
What was the greatest injustice (harm) done to you:
a. at work by a boss, colleague, subordinate, customer, or customer
b. in general by a parent, sibling, friend, teacher, or anyone else
Explain the situation. Have you forgiven the wrongdoer for harming you? If no, how does your
inability or unwillingness to forgive the wrongdoer continue to damage you? What positive
benefits would you receive if you did forgive the wrongdoer?
CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER AND ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS SUMMARY
Chapter Question 1: What are William Torbert’s six management role models, which are
associated with the different stages of moral development?
oSubordinates are constantly evaluating the ethics of a manager’s decisions and behaviors
oWilliam Torbert has developed a management role model typology based on Lawrence
Kohlberg’s six stages of moral development.
Stages 1 and 2 – Opportunist: An Opportunist is strongly influenced by rewards and
punishments and will exhibit ethical/unethical behaviors based on rewards and
punishments.
Stage 3 – Diplomat: A Diplomat is strongly influenced by social group norms and
supports decisions agreed to by other managers. Diplomats pursue ethical or unethical
behaviors based on being good team players, seeking group consensus, and avoiding
group conflict.
Stage 4 – Technician: A Technician is strongly influenced by technical logic and
determines the right thing to do based on data and organizational interests, often in a
dogmatic and perfectionist manner. Technician managers will behave
ethically/unethically when rational analysis recommends it.
Stage 5 – Achiever: An Achiever is goal-oriented and strongly influenced by
organizational success. Achiever managers will behave ethically/unethically based on
how they impact goal accomplishment.
Stage 6 – Strategist and Magician: Torbert invokes two different Stage 6 management
role models.
oA Strategist is a systems thinker who welcomes ambiguity and multiple
perspectives, analyzes the strengths and differences of different approaches, and
then applies one overarching organizing principle appropriate for all people in all
situations to generate the best solutions.
oMagicians add to this a commitment to personal, employee, and organizational
transformation, and a willingness to change based on a vision of the good.
oStrategist and Magician managers strive to behave according to an ideal
conceptualization of ethical behavior and fulfillment.
oIn research studies, Torbert and his colleagues found that:
osupervisors tend to be Technicians
omiddle-level and upper-level managers tend to be Technicians and Achievers
oprofessionals tend to be Achievers and Strategists
FOR DISCUSSION: Based on Torbert’s typology, which of one best describes your boss,
teacher, yourself? Provide examples that support your answers. Discuss in small groups.
Chapter Question 2: Discuss the five different types of power sources available to
managers, and the ethical issues related to authoritarian and participatory leadership
styles.
Managers possess power for the purpose of achieving organizational objectives.
Social psychologists John French and Bertram Raven differentiated among five types of
power bases individuals can have in relationship to others:
Authoritarian refers to demanding blind submission to someone in authority. Authoritarian
An authoritarian management style raises several ethical issues.
During the 1950s, Douglas McGregor differentiated between two different management
oTheory X represented the traditional perspective – people were lazy, disliked
Rensis Likert’s research led him to conclude that a participative management system resulted
Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard fine-tuned the differences between authoritarian and
participative leadership styles by noting that there is no one best way to manage everybody.
FOR DISCUSSION: Have students complete the free Theory X and Theory Y survey available at
available at http://www.businessballs.com/mcgregor.htm. Discuss the survey results in
small groups. Is one style better than the other? Which one? Which is better group of
assumptions for being a (a) corporate leader, (b) nonprofit leader, (c) military leader, (d) college
president, (e) basketball coach, (f) faculty member teaching a class? Why
Chapter Question 3: What is ethical leadership and how can it be measured?
In a series of articles, Michael Brown, Linda Trevino, and their colleagues provide an
expansive understanding of what it means to be an ethical leader. They maintain that a
manager’s reputation for being an ethical leader is based on two factors, being a moral person
and being a moral manger.
Within this analytical framework, Brown, Trevino and David Harrison define ethical
leadership as “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal
FOR DISCUSSON: Have students complete the “Ethical Leadership Survey” in Exhibit 9.1 for a
boss, the president of a student organization, or the teacher. Also complete the survey as a
self-assessment. What are the person’s strengths and weaknesses? How can the person improve a
weak area? Then in small groups discuss the results.
Also address the following questions:
1. Must an ethical leader at work live a moral lifestyle outside of work? Why?
2. How does a manager’s personal lifestyle outside of work impact how employees respect, and
perform for, the manager?
3. How did President Bill Clinton’s relationship with Monica Lewinski impact his presidential
power and accomplishments?
4. Should a CEO who commits adultery or is an alcoholic resign? Why?
FOR DISCUSSION: Students can be an ethical leader by making a real personal difference in
the life of a friend, classmate, or co-worker through a heart-to-heart discussion or action. Provide
an example when you: (1) Made a difference in the life of a friend, classmate or co-worker. Why
did you decide to act on this opportunity? (2) Could have made a difference but chose not to.
Why didn’t you act on this opportunity? (3) Can make a difference in the near future. What can
you do for a friend, classmate or co-worker that will make a difference?
oEthical leaders are transparent and authentic. They mean what they say and practice virtuous
behaviors.
FOR DICUSSON: Have students complete the “Virtue Ethics Survey” in Exhibit 9.2 for a boss,
the president of a student organization, or the teacher. Also complete the survey as a
self-assessment. What are the person’s strengths and weaknesses? How can the person improve a
weak area? Then in small groups discuss the results.
oRobert Greenleaf referred to servant leadership as achieving organizational results by
FOR DISCUSSION: Have students read the “Best Practice in Use” story about Aaron
Feurerstein at Malden Mills and discuss the following: If you were Feuerstein, would you have:
(a) called it quits after the fire (keep in mind you would be 70 years old), (b) relocated operations
overseas where there is cheaper labor, (c) relocate to a southern state that did not have unions, or
(d) reopen in Lawrence where the employees are unionized and labor costs are high? Why?
oCreating employee feedback systems that gather information about ethical perceptions
symbolizes the importance of ethics to the organization and is an essential information
source.
FOR DISCUSSION: Have students complete the “Great Place to Work® Dimensions” in Exhibit
9.3 for a company they work for, a student organization, the college, or business school. What
are the organization’s strengths and weaknesses? How can the organization transform a weakness
into a strength? Then discuss the results in small groups.
Chapter Question 4: How can work goals and performance appraisals influence ethical and
unethical behaviors?
oOrganization and work goals clarify expectations for both managers and employees.
oAnother popular holistic goal approach available to ethical leaders is the “Triple Bottom
Line.”
oA stretch goal, contrasted to an incremental goal, is one that appears to be just a little out of
the employee’s reach, thus the need to stretch to accomplish the goal. Employees are more
likely to accomplish something that seems impossible if a goal is established that focuses the
employee’s attention on the task.
oSMART goals have five attributes. The SMART acronym stands for goals that are:
oManagement-By-Objectives (MBO) is a goal-setting technique in which managers and their
FOR DISCUSSION: Have students independently answer the following: Do employees in your
organization or students at school ever engage in unethical behavior in order to achieve a
performance goal? If so, how can the performance goals or monitoring systems be modified to
generate more ethical, or less unethical, behaviors? Share answers in small groups.
oGoals require deadlines, and deadlines can create stress through psychological and physical
tension.
oOrganizations can help employees manage stress through:
FOR DISCUSSION: Lead a short 5 minute meditation in class using the 8 steps that appear in
the “Stress Management” section in the book. Upon completion, ask students if they feel more
relaxed
oAn employee performance appraisal evaluates factors that are directly or indirectly related
to achieving organizational and employee goals.
oInclude an ethics component in employee performance appraisals.
oLink employee performance appraisal results to merit raises and promotions to ensure that
employees who behave ethically, and achieve goals in alignment with organizational
objectives, are appropriately rewarded.
oDesign performance appraisals, and gather relevant data, that address four prominent ethical
performance issues:
1. Does the employee behave unethically?
2. Does the employee live up to the code of ethics?
3. Does the employee embody the attitudes and behaviors of an ideal employee?
4. Does the employee achieve and support ethics-based initiatives?
oThe seven-item survey in EXHIBIT 9.4 “Practicing Unethical Behaviors Survey” highlights
unethical behaviors that might publicly embarrass an employee. Modify the items to fit the
context of the organization or work unit.
FOR DISCUSSION: Have students complete the “Practicing Unethical Behaviors Survey” in
Exhibit 9.4 as a self-assessment for a job or as a student (insert “performance” for “job
activities,” “students for “co-worker,” and “school” for “company”). Which of the unethical
behaviors do you want to change? What specifically do you need to do to reduce your unethical
behavior score for that item?
oAnnually appraise how well employees perform according to the organization’s Code of
Ethics. Review the survey in EXHIBIT 9.5 “Employee Code of Ethics Performance
Appraisal”
FOR DISCUSSION: Have students complete the “Employee Code of Ethics Performance
Appraisal” in Exhibit 9.5 as a self-assessment for a work experience, college, school of business,
or student organization. Which of the items should the student improve upon? How can the
student sincerely score higher on that item?
oAppraise employee performance for all ethics-based initiatives. These items can be added to
regular performance appraisals.
oMeasures for ethics-based initiatives may include accomplishing affirmative action hiring
and promotion goals, work unit ethics scores, percentage of employees participating in ethics
and diversity training workshops, theft reductions, and number of employee grievances.
oEmployee performance appraisals can be used to benchmark the distance an employee still
needs to travel in the direction of becoming an ideal employee.
oReview EXHIBIT 9.6 “Leadership Skills Performance Appraisal,” which provides a survey
based on a profile for an ideal leader.
FOR DISCUSSION: Have students complete the “Leadership Skills Performance Appraisal” in
Exhibit 9.6 as a self-assessment for a work experience, college, school of business, or student
organization. Which of the items should the student improve upon? How can the student
sincerely score higher on that item?
oHow employee performance appraisal information is collected and evaluated raises ethical
issues.
oConduct employee performance evaluations in a timely manner, at least once a year.
o Fairness dictates that employees receive evaluation scores that are related to their actual job
performance.
o An authentic and holistic picture of an employee’s performance can be determined based on
360-degree performance evaluations.
oEmployees can be rated in comparison to an absolute standard of performance or ranked in
comparison to each other.
oA rating system is more ethical than a ranking system in that an employee earns a
rating based on his or her job task efforts and accomplishments, whereas a
ranking system may not adequately describe an employee’s value to the work
unit.
oRanking people can create unhealthy competition among employees.
FOR DISCUSSION: Have students discuss/debate the following: If you were a professor, would
you evaluate students in class using a rating system (student grades are based only on points
earned) or ranking system (student grades are based on points earned using a forced-curve
distribution – only 10% can earn an “A”, 50% a “B”, 30% a “C” and 10% lower than a “C”)?
Why?
oCarefully manage the performance appraisal feedback session because employees may feel
anxious about giving or receiving critical information.
oPrior to the meeting, compare the employee’s self-assessment with the 360-degree
performance appraisal results.
First, begin the meeting by discussing areas that both the employee and the
raters highlighted as strengths. Praise these behaviors and accomplishments.
Second, discuss any areas raters highlighted as strengths but the employee did
not.
Third, discuss any areas the employee highlighted as strengths but the raters
did not.
Fourth, discuss those areas that both the employee and raters highlighted as
weaknesses.
FOR DISCUSSION: Have students list the behaviors of an ideal student in terms of class
participation. Use this list for the following activity. Put students in pairs and have them assess
their own class participation and that of their partner using the list generated in class. Have one
of the paired student role play the boss, and the other paired student is the person being
evaluated. Then have the boss conduct a performance appraisal feedback session using the
advice in the “Performance Appraisal Feedback” section. Then switch roles. Next, have students
evaluate each other in terms of how well each member of the pair conducted the performance
appraisal feedback session. What was difficult to do? What would the students do differently the
next time they gave or received performance feedback?
Additional Question 1: What are best practices for disciplining work rule violations?
oEthical leadership does not mean never disciplining or firing anyone. Poor performers who
fail to improve need to be dismissed for the benefit of the work unit and organization, and
sometimes downsizing is unavoidable.
oPolygraph tests can be used for employee theft.
oReview EXHIBIT 9.7 “Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988,” which summarizes
some of key rules governing employee polygraph tests.
oThe following is a continuum of potential punishments, beginning with the most lenient and
ending with the harshest, for managing workplace violations.
FOR DISCUSSION: Have students think of a time when they were punished by a boss, teacher,
parent, or some other authority person. What was the situation? Was the punishment appropriate?
Why? If the student was the person in authority, how would he or she have managed the
situation?
Chapter Question 5: Why is it important to forgive managers and co-workers? Describe
Robert Enright’s four phases of forgiveness.
oViolated trust between and among managers and employees needs to be repaired.
oRobert Enright of the International Forgiveness Institute defines forgiveness as a gift freely
given in the face of moral wrong, without denying the wrong itself. Forgiveness recognizes
oEnright offers a four-phase model that ethical managers can apply to guide employees
oPhase 1: Uncovering Phase. The violated person recognizes that the unjust
situation has created unhealthy anger and emotional pain.
FOR DISCUSSION: What was the greatest injustice (harm) done to you (a) at work by a boss,
colleague, subordinate, customer, or customer, and (b) in general by a parent, sibling, friend,
teacher, or anyone else. Explain the situation. Have you forgiven the wrongdoer for harming
you? If no, how does your inability or unwillingness to forgive the wrongdoer continue to
damage you? What positive benefits would you receive if you did forgive the wrongdoer?
