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CHAPTER 7
PERSONAL COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES
Communication is so vital that it has been described as the glue that holds organizations and
families together. Most job foul-ups and marital disputes are considered to be communication
problems.
I. HOW COMMUNICATION TAKES PLACE
Communication is the sending and receiving of messages. We use a three-step version of
the familiar communication model: Encoding (putting ideas into symbols)→
Communication channel or medium→Decoding (understanding a message). If decoding is
successful, it leads to action. Noise, or unwanted interference, is a barrier to
communication and can occur at any step in the communication process. See Figure 7-1
for a visual of the Communication Process.
Visit the Mind Tools website for more information about Improving Your
Communication Skills at http://www.mindtools.com/page8.html
II. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION (SENDING AND RECEIVING SILENT
MESSAGES)
A substantial amount of communication on and off the job is nonverbal. Nonverbal
communication, using the body, voice, or environment in numerous ways to help get a
message across, is used primarily to convey the feeling behind a message. An important
use of nonverbal communication in the workplace is to detect mixed messages, or a
discrepancy bdetgween what a person says and how he or she acts. A danger exists in over-
interpreting nonverbal messages.
A. Environment or Setting
The setting of the message often communicates something about the sender, such as
seriousness of purpose.
B. Distance from the Other Person
The physical distance the sender places between himself or herself and the receiver
may communicate a message, such as the degree of liking or warmth. See Figure 7-2
for the Four Circles of Intimacy.
1. Intimate distance – physical distance to about 18 inches
2. Personal distance – 1.5 to 4 feet
3. Social distance – 4 to 12 feet.
4. Public distance – 12 to 25 feet and beyond
C. Posture
Receivers generally note the sender’s posture even without realizing it. Good posture
sends out positive messages. Sitting is more intimate and informal than standing.
D. Hand Gestures
there is a discrepancy between words and gestures, the receiver will usually take the
gestures more seriously. People tend to believe what is expressed nonverbally rather
than verbally.
E. Facial Expressions and Eye Contact
The most reliable nonverbal signals are emitted by the head, face, and eyes. As is well
known, maintaining eye contact with another person improves communication with
him or her. Cultural differences can influence the meaning of eye contact. A person’s
and attractive. The meaning of being well dressed depends heavily on the situation.
Tattoos and body piercing represent another aspect of personal appearance that sends
a strong nonverbal message (both positive and negative).
H. Touching Another Person
Touch is a powerful vehicle for conveying such emotions as warmth, comfort, and
agreement, approval, reassurance, and physical attraction. Yet, behavior involving
touching in the workplace is governed by cultural attitudes and status. Touching on
the job can be perceived positively or negatively, with hugging the most
controversial.
I. Lie Detection through Nonverbal Communication
all people, in all situations, indicates deception. Yet we know that lying requires extra
mental effort as indicated by nonverbal forms such as longer pauses between
thoughts. In general, liars touch their face more, twitch more, avoid eye contract, and
fidget considerably.
III. USING SOCIAL MEDIA TO ENHANCE COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS
The most frequent job use of social media is much like e-mail. Workers send brief
messages to each other by making posts on the website, and top-level management might
distribute a message to hundreds of workers simultaneously. Almost infinite knowledge
exists about social networking including its technology, application for building a
personal network, and marketing.
A. Positive Communication Skills and Social Networking
Social media websites provide the serious worker with several opportunities for
displaying positive communication and interpersonal skills, as follows:
1. Demonstrate your loyalty by posting gracious comments about your employer.
2. Demonstrate professional-level communication skills.
3. Pay deserved compliments to company personnel.
4. Establish meaningful contact with workers far and wide.
5. Display a desire to help others grow and develop.
6. For professionally-oriented websites, ask first before inviting another person to
become a connection.
B. Negative Communication Skills and Social Networking
Social networking provides a setting for displaying negative as well as positive
communication and interpersonal skills. All of the positive opportunities mentioned
above could be reversed to become negative. Next are a few of the possibilities for
negative communication and interpersonal skills on social networking sites:
2. Posting confidential or derogatory information about your employer.
3. Posting derogatory information or photos about a coworker.
4. Engaging in social networking at inappropriate times.
Despite all the emphasis on social media and other electronic forms of communication,
many companies still value in-person communication.
IV. FREQUENT BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Communication rarely proceeds as effectively as we would like. Roadblocks are the most
to clarify meanings. Instant messaging helps overcome the one-way barrier because
the receiver reacts immediately to your message.
C. Different Interpretation of Words (Semantics)
Semantics is the study of the meaning and changes in the meaning of words or
symbols. If the receiver makes another interpretation of a key word than intended, the
hear. Without malicious intent, people modify your message to bolster their self-
esteem or improve their situation. Filtering refers to softening bad news to avoid
a negative reaction from the receiver.
F. Different Perspectives and Experiences
People perceive words and concepts differently because their experiences and
that they cannot respond effectively to messages. As a result, they experience work
stress.
I. Improper Timing
Many messages do not get through to people because they are poorly timed. You
have to know how to deliver a message, but you must also know when to deliver it.
Often cultural differences and language difference exist at the same time. Cross-
cultural training is often used to overcome these barriers.
V. BUILDING BRIDGES TO COMMUNICATION
With determination and awareness that communication roadblocks and barriers exist,
people can become more effective communicators.
A positive attitude helps a person communicate better in speaking, writing, and
nonverbally. A starting point in developing a positive attitude is to seem things from
a positive perspective, including looking for the good in people and their work. See
Figure 7-3 for some Key Principles of Persuasive Communication.
D. Discuss Differences in Frames of Reference
F. Minimize Defensive Communication
Defensive communication is used to receive messages in such a way that our self-
esteem is protected. It is also used to send messages to make one look good. Denial,
the suppression of information we find uncomfortable, is behind defensive
communication.
mirroring technique for establishing rapport is to imitate another person’s breathing
pattern. Mirroring requires skill. If you mirror (or match) another person in a rigid,
mechanical way you will appear to be mocking that person thereby creating a
communication barrier.
I. Engage in Small Talk and Positive Gossip
VI. OVERCOMING GENDER BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Another strategy for overcoming communication barriers is to deal effectively with
potential gender differences. Gender differences in communication style have aroused
considerable interest, but they must be regarded as cultural stereotypes. Individual
differences in communication style are usually more important than group (men versus
women). The major gender differences in communication patterns are as follows:
1. Women prefer to use conversation for rapport building.
2. Men prefer to use talk primarily as a means to preserve independence and status
by displaying knowledge and skill.
3. Women want empathy, not solutions.
4. Men prefer to work out their problems by themselves, whereas women prefer to
8. Women are more likely to use a gentle expletive, whereas men tend to be
harsher.
9. Women use the words “I,” “me,” and “mine” more frequently.
Understanding these differences will help you interpret the communication behavior of
people. A general suggestion for overcoming gender-related communication barriers is for
men to improve communication by listening with more empathy. Women can improve
communication by becoming more direct.
VII. ENHANCING YOUR LISTENING SKILLS
Improving one’s receiving of messages is another part of developing better
communication skills. Unless you receive messages as intended, you cannot perform your
job properly or be a good companion. Listening is a major communication activity.
Insufficient listening is extraordinarily costly, leading to such problems as re-shipping
orders and recalling defective products.
accept the other person’s figure of speech. By so doing, the sender feels
understood and accepted.
2. Feedback and Paraphrasing. By listening actively, the listener can feed back to
the speaker what he or she thinks the speaker meant. To be an active listener, it is
also important to paraphrase, or repeat in your own words what the sender says,
feels and means. To help become an active listener, keep papers and your
computer screen out of sight when listening to somebody else. Be sure to let
others speak until they have finished.
3. Minimize Distractions. Having distractions in sight creates the temptation to
glance away from the message sender. At the start of the conversation, notice the
other person’s color to help you establish eye contact.
4. Allow Sender to Finish His or Her Sentence. Do not interrupt by talking about
you, jumping in with advice, or offer solutions unless requested.
B. Minimize Words that Shut Down Discussion
A key part of listening is to keep the conversation flowing. To maintain the flow,
minimize certain negatively-toned words that frequently shut down conversation,
such as no,” “but,” and “however.”
VIII. PERSONAL COMMUNICATION STYLE
How you combine verbal and nonverbal communication becomes part of your
personal communication style, or your unique approach to sending and receiving
information. Hundreds of styles are possible.
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW
7.1 What could you do to demonstrate to your immediate manager that you are empathetic
(have empathy skills)?
7.2 Many people contend they communicate much more formally when on the job, and much
more informally (including using a more limited vocabulary) when among family
members and friends. What do you see as the potential advantages and disadvantages of
using two communication styles?
7.3 Why is nonverbal communication so important for the effectiveness of a manager or sales
representative?
7.4 Hugging the workplace is still frequent, but why is it that you are unlikely to be hugged
by (a) a sales associate in a retail store, (b) your medical care provider, or (c) the
mechanic who repairs your vehicle?
7.5 Assume that a person who is intent on a career in business chooses to have several
tattoos. Which type of tattoo is likely to send the most positive message about his or her
maturity and seriousness?
7.6 “Hey” has become a widely-used salutation for e-mail messages and often social media
posts. Give an example of a situation in which you think “Hey” is an inappropriate
7.7 Watch an episode of “Shark Tank” on television, or reflect back on a few episodes if you
do watch the show. What advantage do the in-person appeals for funding on the show
offer over sending e-mails or text messages?
7.8 Based on your own observations, identify a term or phrase in the workplace that creates
semantic problems.
Students may have to think hard to find valid examples of semantic problems despite the
7.9 So what if communication patterns between men and women have been identified? What
impact will this information have on your communications with men and women?
7.10 How would you rate the persuasive communication skills of the current president of the
United States? Have you any suggestions as to how he or she could improve?
This book will be in print when a new U.S. president takes office in January 2017.
Looking at past presidents, both Ronald Regan and Bill Clinton were referred to as great
communicators. President George W. Bush, on the other hand, struggled with
President Barack Obama is (or was) regarded as having excellent communication skills
except for the need to present more details about his plans, as well as being distant at
times. Obama could (or could have) improve by presenting more details, and doing what
he can to back up his promises with specific accomplishments. Accomplishments add to
the credibility aspect of persuasiveness. President Obama has also been criticized for
appearing a little distant and detached when he communicates which could detract from
his persuasiveness.
COMMENTS ON EXERCISES AND CASES
Human Relations: Self-Assessment Quiz 7-1: My Communication Effectiveness
Although it may be difficult for most people to rate themselves objectively on communication
behaviors, at least this quiz points to both effective and ineffective communication behaviors to
think about.
Human Relations Self-Assessment Quiz 7-.2: Common Listening Mistakes
The errors in listening described in this quiz get at the essence of good listening, and therefore
should prove helpful to students. Some of the listening problems can be changed with self-
discipline and frequent practice. For example, with concentration a person can avoid changing
the subject so frequently when another person is talking (Statement No. 3), and might be able to
remember the name of another person more readily (Statement No. 9).
Applying Human Relations Exercise 7-1: I Want this Position
My experience is that many students perceive brief presentations of this nature to be of high
value, and are inherently interesting. If students stick to their three-minute limits, the activity will
have a lively pace. The most convincing arguments will ordinarily relate to how well the student
has performed in the past both in a formal job and on class projects.
It will be interesting to see how many people base their demand for the position based on
financial need, such as “I just bought a new car, and I have to have another $150 per month to
make my payment.” Such an approach falls short of explaining the benefits to the company if the
applicant is hired.
Applying Human Relations Exercise 7-2: Active Listening
This role-play is valuable because it demonstrates that listening is not a natural behavior pattern.
A potential pitfall for the student listening to the cost cutter is to jump in with cost-cutting
suggestions of his or her own before listening intently to what the cost cutter has to offer.
The listener in the jubilant innovation award winner role-play might not empathize with the
award winner because the listener might dismiss the relevance of the teeth whitener for dogs—
unless he or she is a true dog lover. Being in a hurry might also interfere with good listening.
The evaluation factors are designed to tap major dimensions of active listening. It is
challenging for the unskilled or inexperienced listener to show empathy and to ask appropriate
questions. Students are encouraged to use this rating sheet for other listening situations. Class
members might be asked to what other use they could make of this evaluation sheet covering six
behaviors associated with active listening.
A Human Relations Class Activity: How Good Should Our Communication Skills Be?
7.11 To what extent are the people criticizing Alan simply out of touch with modern
technology?
7.12 What suggestions might you have for Alan to improve his use of communication
technology in the office?
When Alan is faced with a communication event such as the opportunity to provide
feedback to a group member, he should pause and ask himself, “What is the best medium
for sending this message?” He might then reach a conclusion such as, “Performance
7.13 How might Alan improve his written communication skills in order to qualify for the
position of vice president of logistics?
communication. After that recognition, Alan could take standard steps to improve his
written communication such as studying a business communication skills text, and then
practicing what he studied. Knowing Alan, he would probably search his smart phone for
an “app” to improve written communication.
Human Relations Role-Playing Exercise 7-1: Feedback about Feedback
An important skill to practice in this role play is how to gently criticize or confront one’s
supervisor. Juan wants Alan to change his behavior, yet Juan most likely does not want to enter
into conflict with Alan. The student who plays the role of Alan must decide whether Alan is
willing to listen to a suggestion for change versus insisting that doing things his way is correct.
Human Relations Case Study 7-2: Charlotte, the Aspiring Restaurant Manager
This case illustrates the widespread problem of a person having a communication style that
suggests a lack of conviction, or a wimpy communication style.-
7.14 What evidence do you see that Charlotte needs to come across with more conviction?
7.15 What do you recommend that Charlotte do to become a more persuasive communicator?
Charlotte should first acquire cognitive information about persuasive communication.
Third, she should practice her new skills with friends and in work situations.
Human Relations Role-Playing Exercise 7-2: Charlotte Communicates Persuasively
Here is an opportunity for the student or students who play the role of Charlotte to demonstrate
persuasive communication skills. However, watch to see if Charlotte moves too far into
communicating persuasively that she becomes inappropriate in her communication style.
SUPPLEMENTARY CLASS ACTIVITY
Visit the Building Dynamic Groups website for many fun Communication Class Activities at
http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~bdg/communication.html. Use the following activities for:
• Back to Back—To demonstrate the need for eye contact
• Broken Squares—To demonstrate the importance of effective interpersonal skills
• Dolphins and Killer Whales—To demonstrate the importance of listening responses that
stop communication (“stoppers”) and listening responses that encourage communication
(“openers”)
• Do Your Best—To demonstrate how well students communicate
• Drawing Bugs—To demonstrate the importance of two-way communication
• Giants, Wizards, and Elves—To demonstrate reading body language
