CHAPTER 13
DIVERSITY AND CROSS-CULTURAL COMPETENCE
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES
Being able to work well with people from other cultures, both outside and inside of your own
country is important for success. Surface-level diversity is about differences in visible
characteristics such as gender, race, and ethnicity. Deep-level diversity is about differences in
underlying psychological characteristics, such as personality, attitudes, values, and sexual
orientation. Being able to relate to a culturally diverse customer base is also necessary for
success. Not only has the workforce become more diverse, but business has become
increasingly international.
This chapter presents ideas and techniques you can use to sharpen your ability to work
effectively with people from diverse backgrounds. The buzzword for this activity is to be
inclusive in your relationships with people.
I. MAJOR DIMENSIONS OF DIFFERENCES IN CULTURAL VALUES?
Culture is a learned and shared system of knowledge, beliefs, values, attitudes, and
norms. As such, culture includes an enormous amount of behavior. Seven dimensions (or
facets) of cultural values that help explain how cultures differ from each other are
described here.
1. Individualism vs. collectivism. Individualistic people believe that their interests take
priority. Collectivistic people are more concerned with the organization or the work
group than with themselves.
2. Acceptance of power and authority. People from some cultures accept power
distance at different organizational levels; in some other cultures people do not
recognize a power hierarchy.
3. Materialism vs. concern for others. Some cultures emphasize assertiveness and the
acquisition of money and material objects. At the other end of the continuum is
concern for others, an emphasis on personal relations, and the common welfare.
4. Formality vs. informality. A country that values formality attaches considerable
importance to tradition, ceremony, social rules, and rank. In contrast, informality
refers to a casual attitude toward these same aspects of culture.
5. Urgent time orientation vs. casual time orientation. People from countries with an
urgent time orientation view time as a limited resource and tend to be impatient.
People with a casual time orientation view time as an unlimited and unending
resource and tend to be patient.
6. Work orientation vs. leisure orientation. A major cultural difference is the number
of hours per week and weeks per year people expect to invest in work versus
leisure, or other non-work activities.
7. High context vs. low-context cultures. High-context cultures make more extensive
use of body language. People in low-context cultures seldom take time in business
dealings to build relationships and establish trust.
8. Social support seeking. Cultures differ with the degree to which people seek out
others to help them with difficult problems through such means as listening
offering sympathy, and giving advice. Asians and Asian Americans are more
reluctant to explicitly request support from close others than are European
Americans.
A. Multicultural Identities and the Cultural Mosaic
Another complexity about understanding cultural differences is that many people
have multicultural identities therefore incorporating the values of two or more
cultures because they identify with both their primary culture and another culture or
cultures. Young people today often develop a global identity that gives them a feeling
of belonging to a worldwide culture.
1. The Cultural Mosaic. The cultural mosaic refers to an individual’s unique
mixture of multiple cultural identities that yields a complex picture of the cultural
influences on that person.
2. Religious Values. The religious part of the cultural mosaic often affects when
people are willing to work or not work. Religious diversity can create problems
as more companies move to 24/7 schedules.
B. Applying Knowledge of Cultural Differences
The key principle to recognizing cultural differences is to be alert to these
differences, and to be sensitive to how they could affect your dealing with people. To
improve interpersonal relationships on the job, recognize that a person’s national
values might influence his or her behavior. For example, emphasize nonverbal
communication with a person from a high-context culture.
II. APPROACHES TO IMPROVING CROSS-CULTURAL RELATIONS
Here we take a systematic look at approaches people can use on their own along with
training programs designed to improve cross-cultural relations. See Figure 13-1 for an
outline of Methods and Techniques for Improving Cross-Cultural Relations.
A. Develop Cultural Sensitivity and Cultural Intelligence
To relate well to someone from a foreign country, a person must be alert to possible
cultural differences. Cultural sensitivity is an awareness of and a willingness to
investigate the reasons why people of another culture act as they do. A person with
cultural sensitivity will recognize certain nuances in customs that will help build
better relationships from cultural backgrounds other than his or her own. Raise your
antenna and observe carefully what others are doing.
An advanced aspect of cultural sensitivity is to be able to fit in comfortably with
people of another culture by observing the subtle cues they give about how a person
should act in their presence. Cultural intelligence (CQ) is an outsider’s ability to
interpret someone’s unfamiliar and ambiguous behavior the same way that person’s
compatriots would. Cultural intelligence encompasses several different aspects of
behavior such as:
1. Metacognitive (higher-order intelligence)—High-level problem-solving ability
used to organize and understand cultural knowledge.
2. Cognitive (the head)—What a person knows and how he or she can acquire new
knowledge.
3. Emotional/motivational (the heart)—Energizing one’s actions and building
personal confidence.
4. The body (physical)—The action component or the element for translating
intensions into actions and desires.
To practice high cultural intelligence, the mind, heart, and body would have to work
together.
B. Focus on Individuals Rather than Groups
Another way of respecting all workers and cultures is to practice sexual equity, or
parity among heterosexual, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender employees. (The
last four groups are referred to collectively as LGBT.) Sexual equity often takes the
form of an employer offering health-care coverage for same-sex domestic partners.
D. Value Cultural Differences
Recognizing cultural differences is an excellent starting point in becoming a
multicultural worker, one who can work effectively with people from different
cultures. If you place a high value on cultural differences, you will perceive people
from other cultures to be different but equally good. You cannot motivate someone of
another culture until that person first accepts you. A multilingual sales representative
has the ability to explain the advantages of a product in another language. In contrast,
a multicultural sales rep can motivate foreigners to make the purchase. The difference
is substantial.
A well-documented advantage stemming from valuing cultural differences is creative
problem solving. The diversity of viewpoints within the group can enhance group
creativity.
E. Recognize Own Cultural Biases
We may have an unconscious tendency to react positively or negatively toward
people from a particular culture or demographic group. A chief diversity officer
points that have having bias is human nature. A challenge is therefore learning how
to manage those biases appropriately, such as asking yourself whether you have
prejudged anybody lately based on his or her culture.
F. Minimize Cultural Bloopers
An effective way of being culturally sensitive is to minimize actions that are likely to
offend people from another culture based on their values and customs. Cultural
bloopers are most likely to take place when visiting another country, yet can also take
place in one’s own country. E-commerce has created new opportunities for creating
cultural bloopers. Bloopers must be avoided because being able to communicate your
message directly in your customer’s mother tongue provides a competitive advantage.
In your quest to avoid cultural mistakes, remember that members of any cultural
group show individual differences. See Figure 13-2 for a listing of Cultural Mistakes
to Avoid with Selected Cultural Groups.
G. Participate in Cultural Training
A method chosen frequently for preparing overseas workers is cultural training, a
set of learning experiences designed to help employees understand the customs,
traditions, and benefits of another culture. Many industries train employees in cross-
cultural relations. Cultural training is considered essential for international workers
involved with people from other cultures because negotiating styles differ across
cultures.
1. Cultural Training for Domestic Employees. Many employees who never leave
the country work with people from around the globe, so cultural training has been
extended to domestic employees.
2. Foreign Language Training. Learning a foreign language is often part of cultural
training, yet can also be a separate activity. Knowledge of a second language is
important because it builds better connections with people from other cultures
than does relying on a translator.
H. Participate in Diversity Training
Cultural training is mostly about understanding people from other cultures. Diversity
training has a slightly different purpose. It attempts to bring about workplace
harmony be teaching people how to get along with diverse work associates. Such
training centers on increasing awareness of and empathy for people different in some
noticeable way from oneself.
1. Recognizing Differences. A starting point in diversity training is to emphasize
that everybody is different in some way, and that all these differences should be
appreciated. To help training participants develop empathy, representatives of
various groups explain their feelings related to workplace issues. Diversity
training emphasizes inclusion, or including everybody when appreciating
diversity. See Figure 13-3, The Diversity Umbrella, for a broad sampling of the
ways in which workplace associates can differ from one another. Diversity
training sometimes includes providing guidelines for dealing with different
groups and individuals to help create a positive environment.
2. Concerns about Diversity Training. A criticism of many diversity training
programs is that too many angry feelings and negative stereotypes are reinforced,
leading to strained relationships. Diversity training is sometimes patronizing
because many workers already appreciate diversity. For diversity training to work
well it must be supported by the organization culture including enhanced
promotional opportunities for minorities and women.
Visit the Harvard Business School website for an article on Seven Ways to Better
Communicate in Today’s Diverse Workplace – Seven Tips for Communicating In
Today’s Diverse Workplace at http://hbswk.hbs.edu/archive/3266.html
IV. OVERCOMING CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
A key part of developing good cross-cultural relations is to overcome, or prevent,
communication barriers stemming from cultural differences. Personal life, too, is often more
culturally diverse today than previously. Avoiding cultural bloopers can help prevent
communication barriers, as will the following suggestions:
1. Be alert to cultural differences in customs and behavior.
2. Use straightforward language and speak slowly and clearly.
3. Observe cultural differences in etiquette. (A good example is whether calling
somebody by the first name or last name is more appropriate.)
4. Be sensitive to differences in nonverbal communication. (For example, observe what
type of hugging is acceptable.)
5. Do not be diverted by style, accent, grammar, or personal appearance. (For example, do
not shut off communications or think a person is dull just because he or she speaks
with a strong accent or has poor grammar.)
6. Listen for understanding, not agreement.
7. Be attentive to individual differences in appearance. (Do not confuse people simply
because they are members of the same race or ethnic group.)
9. Ask questions to clarify potential misunderstandings.
Many of the cross-cultural communication barriers mentioned in the preceding list take
place between customers and call centers located in other countries. Americans often do not
understand the version of English spoken by the customer service or technical support
representative.
V. ADDITIONAL WAYS IN WHICH ORGANIZATIIONS USE DIVERSITY TO
ADVANTAGE
To both make possible and capitalize upon diversity, organizations take many initiatives as
already mentioned in this chapter. Here we describe briefly five specific programs and
processes aimed at capitalizing upon workplace diversity.
A. Diverse Teams
A building block for diversity is to staff teams, as well as other work groups, with
members who are different from each other in some important respect. Educational
background and specialty field are emphasized here because many people are not aware
that there is more to diversity than race, ethnicity, and gender.
B. Matching Organizational Diversity with Community Diversity
A standard practice for many business, educational, and government organizations is to
approximately match diversity within the organization to that of diversity within the
community. Diversity matching of this type is sometimes practiced at the executive level.
C. Accommodations for People with Physical Disabilities
Many organizations practice diversity by making special accommodations for people
with physical disabilities. Included is making it easier for wheel chair users to navigate
the workplace, and providing software that makes it possible for the visually impaired
and blind workers to perform their tasks.
D. Employer Network (Affinity) Groups
An employee network (or affinity) group is composed of employees throughout the
company who affiliate on the basis of group characteristics such as race, ethnicity, sex,
sexual orientation, or physical ability status. Group members typically have similar
interests and look to the groups as a way of sharing information about succeeding in the
organization. Employee network groups sometimes play a functional role in the
organization in addition to the social role, such as making culturally-based product
suggestions.
A caution is that employee network groups can result in employees segregating rather
than integrating themselves into the workforce, thereby defeating the purpose of diversity
initiatives.
A fitting conclusion to the discussion of initiatives for organizations to obtain the most
value to diversity is that company leadership should set the example. One demonstrated
approach is that senior executives meet regularly with employee network groups and
diversity councils.
VI. LEGAL ASPECTS OF WORKING IN A CULTURALLY DIVERSE ENVIRONMENT
The legal side of diversity focuses on such matters as protecting workers from being
discriminated against because of their minority group membership. However, legislation
does not require workers to develop constructive relationships with each other or to develop
cultural sensitivity. Following is a brief look at relevant employment legislation and
affirmative action guidelines.
A. Federal Laws Prohibiting Job Discrimination
The general purpose of job discrimination laws is to protect individuals how have been
disadvantaged in the past because of demographic characteristics. See Figure 13-4 for a
summary of the Federal Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Laws. These laws apply
to all private employers, state and local governments, and educational institutions that
employ 15 or more individuals.
Although these forms of discrimination may appear clear-cut, a good deal of
interpretation is required to decide whether a given employee is the subject of
discrimination.
B. Additional Examples of Legislation and Court Rulings to Assume Equal Rights
Federal legislation has set the stage for a wide variety of laws and judicial rulings to
prevent employment discrimination, and thereby protect the rights of workers. Here are
three examples.
• Unconscious bias. Several court rulings have recognized that unconscious prejudice
and bias can prevent women and people of color from achievement and advancement
at their employer.
• Protection for people with disabilities. Two acts focus on increased workforce
participation for people with disabilities. (What constitutes a disability can be a
judgment call.)
• State laws protecting the employment rights of gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender
(LGBT) workers. By 2015, eighteen states and the District of Columbia had laws
protecting LGBT workers from being fired because of their sexual orientation or
gender identity. Also, a presidential executive order provides similar protection to
federal workers and workers at some federal contractors.
C. Affirmative Action
Affirmative action consists of complying with antidiscrimination laws and correcting
past discriminatory practices. Under affirmative action programs, employers actively
recruit, employ, train, and promote minorities and women who have been discriminated
against by an employer in the past. Affirmative action has been the subject of continuing
debate.
Visit the Info Please website for an article on Affirmative Action History at
http://www.infoplease.com/spot/affirmative1.html
Visit the Equal Opportunity Employment website for extensive information regarding the
legal aspects of working in a diverse environment at http://www.eeoc.gov/
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW
13.1 In what way might having a high acceptance for power and authority make it difficult for
a person to work well on a team that has very little supervision?
13.2 Identify three positive stereotypes about cultural groups that are related to job behavior.
(An example would be the observation that Mexican laborers are known for their hard
13.3 When you meet someone from another culture, what can you do to demonstrate that you
respect that person’s culture?
13.4 Provide an example of cultural insensitivity of any kind that you have seen, read about, or
could imagine.
A list of answers here would be quite long, and I am sure students can think of some
13.5 In an era of welcoming cultural diversity, does a company have the right to exclude
employees with visible body piercing from any type of positions?
The conservative stance here would be that in certain types of customer contact positions,
prefer not to hire customer-contact workers with rings dangling from their nostrils.
13.6 Suppose a company wants to promote cross-cultural understanding. Should the
executives then discourage employees from one racial or ethnic group from forming a
club or sitting together in the company cafeteria? Explain your position.
Copyright © 2017, Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
13-9
The well-intended plan of getting employees to blend rather than separate would
probably encounter resistance. The employees groups would probably feel that they were
being discriminated against. The executives are better advised to find other ways to
enhance cross-cultural understanding such as having club representatives make
presentations to other groups.
13.7 Several large consumer firms in recent years have hired African-Americans into the CEO
position, with the companies not mentioning face in announcements about the
appointment. To what extent do you think these firms missed an opportunity to publicize
their welcoming of diversity?
13.8 It has been observed that many automobile sales representatives are biased against
women customers. How might this bias (if true) be evident on the sales floor of the
dealer?
13.9 As mentioned in this chapter, a current approach to cultural diversity is to point to and
celebrate differences among employees. Who should decide which differences to
celebrated, such as some employees thanking that women should not be allowed to drive
a vehicle?
13.10 How might you be able to convert cross-cultural skills into higher income and job status
for yourself?
A basic way to convert cross-cultural skills into higher income and status would be to
COMMENTS ON EXERCISES AND CASES
Human Relations Self-Assessment Quiz 1-1: Cross-Cultural Skills and Attitudes
Most people consider themselves to have good cross-cultural skills. This quiz points to
specific behaviors that suggest how much progress a person has made in becoming cross-
cultural. As with most of the instruments presented in this text, the statements reflect
behaviors and attitudes symptomatic of the construct in question—this time cross-cultural
skills and attitudes. Sometimes a seemingly innocuous behavior can reflect true attitudes,
such as Number 13, “I would be willing to (or already do) hang art from different countries
in my home.”
Human Relations Self-Assessment Quiz 13-2: The Personal Biases and Prejudices Checklist
Considering that specialists in the study of biases think we all have some biases, it is worth
reflecting on the extent of our biases. Even positive biases can result in unfair treatment. For
example if a male dentist believes that only women make good dental hygienists, he might
not hire a deserving man for the position. (The subject of positive biases in the workplace
makes a good topic for class discussion.)
Applying Human Relations Exercise 13-1: Avoiding Cultural Mistakes
Reading about these culture mistakes alone will not lead to skill development. Most students
need the opportunity to behave in a manner opposite to one of the cultural mistakes made.
Yet few people have many opportunities to avoid such mistakes unless they live in a
multicultural environment and interact with many different people from different cultures.
As stated in the exercise, the student may have to be creative to find a target with whom to
practice cross-cultural skills. Even a small attempt at avoiding cultural mistakes can be
effective. For example, if visiting a French restaurant the student might think, “What should I
do differently now?” The answer might be as simple as not on insisting on being served the
salad before the main meal. Or, the student might visit an Indian restaurant and not ask for a
salad because it is unusual for an Indian restaurant to serve a salad. (The two faux pas just
mentioned were not listed in Figure 13-3.)
Applying Human Relations Exercise 13-2: Developing Empathy for Differences
The application of this exercise with various groups demonstrates that it is a meaningful
experience. A key insight gained from the exercise is that people are made to feel
uncomfortable because of many different factors. Among them are being below-average in
size, well above-average in size, having an accent from outside the region in which one is
living, and being thought of as a potential terrorist because of a Mid-eastern appearance. An
African-American person said she was perceived as “too white.” Another insight that
typically emerges from this exercise is that making assumptions about people can often lead
to strained relationships. An example of such an assumption is that because someone is from
New York City, he or she is always impatient and in a rush.
After the presentations have been completed, a class discussion ensues about the contribution
of this exercise to interpersonal relations.
Human Relations Class Activity: Cultural Gaffes in Both Directions
For the vast majority of students, cross-cultural differences are inherently interesting. As a
result they may have been observant enough to detect cultural gaffes made by or against
Americans. An important lesson to be learned from relatively serious gaffes is that they can
damage interpersonal relationships. An example here would be a Japanese male visitor
asking the CEO, who is female, to bring tea for the meeting participants. Gaffes of a lighter
nature might not be offensive, and therefore might create a good-natured discussion of
differences. An example here would be an American questioning why a person from the
United Kingdom could tolerate warm beer.
Human Relations Case Study 13-1: Chantal Struggles with a Big Sale in Mexico City
This case illustrates how not being sensitive to values in another culture can have negative
consequences in terms of business results.
13.11 What might the executive have been referring to in terms of “developing a good
relationship before signing a contract”?
The executive was most probably referring to the idea that he wanted to develop a
socially with a vendor.
13.12 What significance might the weekend stay offered to Chantal have had for the
condominium development team?
If Chantal stayed the weekend, she would have demonstrated that she was willing to
the Mexican business culture values.
13.13 What advice can you offer Chantal from a cross-cultural value standpoint to attempt to
salvage this giant contract?
It will be difficult for Chantal to salvage this contract because she has offended her
activity with a few customer representatives in their town, and then discuss business.
Perhaps she can also send them photos of her and her family to help build more of a
personal relationship.
Human Relations Role-Playing Exercise: Chantal Tries to Win Back those Potential Pesos
business, not personal nature. She does not want to hint that she would be a social companion
of Hugo in order to close the deal. The person who plays the role of Hugo must decide how
flexible he will be in re-considering Chantal’s behavior in Mexico.
Human Relations Case Study 13-2: Akiak Wants to Fit In
13.14 What does this case tell us about cultural sensitivity?
The case illustrates that careful thought is required to avoid cultural insensitivity, thereby
indicating that being culturally sensitive is not always easy.
13.15 How might Akiak’s coworkers have related better to him during the orientation?
The coworkers made too many references to cultural differences between Akiak and
and seal hunting were his two favorite sports.
13.16 How might Akiak have done a better job of relating to his new coworkers so far?
Akiak might have recognized that after the first couple of weeks, questions about his
incidents of cultural sensitivity a little longer.
13.17 Does Akiak have an attitude (meaning negative attitude problem)?
Maybe Akiak is a little too sensitive, but it is understandable that his impatience could be
well intended.
Human Relations Role-Playing Exercise: Building a Relationship with an Eskimo Electronic
Technician
This role play provides a good opportunity to integrate showing an interest in another
person’s culture without asking insensitive questions. My experience is that students enjoy
this role play and perform admirable, such asking the question, “What is the dominant
industry in your hometown?”
SUPPLEMENTARY CLASS ACTIVITY
Visit the awareness activities website for a class activity on Understanding the Depth and
Breadth of “Multicultural” at
http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/activities/multicultural.html or an activity on The
Circles of My Multicultural Self at
http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/activities/circlesofself.html
SUPPLEMENTARY CLASS ASSIGNMENT
Interview someone who was raised in, or spent at least six months in another culture and
summarize what you learn. Ask him or her about the culture and geographical differenced
from this area. Learn some of the norms and values of the culture. Ask what, if any, culture
shock they experienced. Also, note examples of ethnocentrism (the assumption that the ways
of one’s are the best way of doing things). Include information about their work world that
you feel is pertinent. Also, give the name, address, phone number, and relationship to the
person you interviewed.