REVIEW
8-1. How can an attitude play an ego-defensive function?
Either attitudes we form to protect ourselves from external threats or internal feelings
perform an ego-defensive function. An early marketing study indicated that housewives
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-2. Describe the ABC model of attitudes.
Most researchers agree that an attitude has three components: affect, behavior, and
cognition. Affect refers to the way a consumer feels about an attitude object. Behavior
involves the person’s intentions to do something with regard to an attitude object (but, as
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-3. List the three hierarchies of attitudes, and describe the major differences among them.
The three hierarchies are: 1) the Standard Learning Hierarchy (beliefs/affect/behavior),
2) the Low-Involvement Hierarchy (beliefs/behavior/affect), and 3) the Experiential
Hierarchy (affect/behavior/beliefs). The differences are in the order the consumer
(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-4. How do levels of commitment to an attitude influence the likelihood it will become part
of the way we think about a product in the long-term?
Consumers vary in their commitment to an attitude; the degree of commitment is related
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-5. We sometimes enhance our attitude toward a product after we buy it. How does the
theory of cognitive dissonance explain this change?
The theory of cognitive dissonance states that when a person is confronted with
inconsistencies among attitudes or behaviors, he or she will take some action to resolve
this “dissonance,” perhaps by changing an attitude or modifying a behavior. The theory
has important ramifications for attitudes, because people are often confronted with
(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
8-1
8-6. What is the foot-in-the-door technique? How does self-perception theory relate to this
effect?
Self-perception theory helps to explain the effectiveness of a sales strategy called the
foot-in-the-door technique that is based on the observation that a consumer is more likely
(14 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-7. What are latitudes of acceptance and rejection? How does a consumer’s level of
involvement with a product affect his latitude of acceptance?
People form latitudes of acceptance and rejection around an attitude standard. Ideas that
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-8. According to balance theory, how can we tell if a triad is balanced or unbalanced? How
can consumers restore balance to an unbalanced triad?
Components of a triad can be either positive or negative. More importantly, people alter
these components in order to make relations among them consistent. The theory specifies
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-9. Describe a multi-attribute attitude model, listing its key components.
A multiattribute model assumes that a consumer’s attitude (evaluation) toward an
attitude object (Ao) depends upon the beliefs he or she has about several or many
attributes of the object and the importance of those attributes. The use of a
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-10. “Do as I say, not as I do.” How does this statement relate to attitude models?
Many studies have obtained a very low correlation between a person’s reported attitude
toward something and his or her actual behavior toward it. Some researchers have been
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-11. What is a subjective norm, and how does it influence our attitudes?
The value of SN is arrived at by including two factors: (1) the intensity of a normative
belief (NB) that others believe an action should be taken or not taken, and (2) the
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
8-2
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-12. What are three obstacles to predicting behavior even if we know a person’s attitudes?
Some outcomes are beyond the consumer’s control; behavior is not always intentional
(impulsive actions; situation changes, novelty seeking); the measures of attitudes may not
(105 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-13. Describe the Theory of Reasoned Action. Why might it not be equally valuable when it is
applied to non-Western cultures?
The theory of reasoned action has primarily been applied in Western settings. Certain
action:
Some acts are not voluntary, and the model predicts the performance of a voluntary
act.
The model presupposes consumers are thinking ahead, while not all cultures
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking and Multicultural and Diversity
Understanding)
8-14. List three psychological principles related to persuasion.
The psychological principles include reciprocity, scarcity, authority, consistency, liking,
(3 minutes, Chapter Objective 5,)
8-15. Describe the elements of the traditional communications model, and tell how the updated
model differs.
The traditional model of communication includes the components of source, channel,
message, receiver, and feedback. The updated model (interactive model) recognizes that
(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
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8-16. What is source credibility, and what are two factors that influence our decision as to
whether a source is credible?
Source credibility refers to a source’s perceived expertise, objectivity, or trustworthiness.
(5-7 minutes, Chapter Objective 8, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-17. What is the difference between buzz and hype?
Buzz is word of mouth that is viewed as authentic and generated by customers. In
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 8, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-18. What is a halo effect, and why does it happen?
The halo effect occurs when persons who rank high on one dimension are assumed to
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 8, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-19. What is an avatar, and why might an advertiser choose to use one instead of hiring a
celebrity endorser?
An avatar is the manifestation of a Hindu deity in superhuman or animal form. In the
computing world, it means a cyberspace presence represented by a character that you
can move around inside a visual, graphical world. The advantages of virtual avatars
(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 8, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-20. Marketers must decide whether to incorporate rational or emotional appeals in a
communications strategy. Describe conditions that are more favorable to one or the other.
The answer often depends on the nature of the product and the type of relationship consumers
have with it. It is hard to gauge the precise effects of rational or emotional appeals.
While recall ability of ad content tends to be better for “thinking” ads than for “feeling”
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 10, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-21. When should a marketer present a message visually versus verbally?
Visuals should be used when the marketer wants to generate an emotional response.
Because it requires more effort to process, a verbal message is most appropriate for
Visual elements may affect brand attitudes in one of two ways. First, the consumer may
form inferences about the brand and change his beliefs because of an illustration’s
(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-22. How does the Two-Factor Theory explain the effects of message repetition on attitude
change?
The two-factor theory explains the fine line between familiarity, which can result in
favorable attitudes through the mere exposure effect, and boredom, which can result in
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
(a) When is it best to present a two-sided message versus a one-sided message?
When the audience is educated, the use of refutational arguments, in which a negative
issue is raised and then dismissed, can be quite effective. This approach can increase
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-23. Do humorous ads work and if so under what conditions?
Humor is more likely to be effective when the brand is clearly identified and the funny
material does not “swamp” the message. This danger is similar to one we have already
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
(a) Should marketers ever try to arouse fear in order to persuade consumers?
Negative fear appeals are usually most effective when only a moderate threat is used, and
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-24. Why do marketers use metaphors to craft persuasive messages? Give two examples of
this technique.
Metaphors allow the marketer to activate meaningful images and apply them to everyday
events. In the stock market, “white knights” battle “hostile raiders” using “poison
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-25. What is the difference between a lecture and a drama?
A lecture is like a speech in which the source speaks directly to the audience in an
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-26. Describe the Elaboration Likelihood Model, and summarize how it relates to the relative
importance of what is said versus how it’s said.
The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) assumes that once a consumer receives a
message, she begins to process it. Depending on the personal relevance of this
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 10, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS
8-27. The Federal Trade Commission recently sponsored a conference on “Blurred Lines:
Advertising or Content?” that reflects the agency’s concerns about the resemblance
between native ads and “real” articles. The chapter discusses the problem of sock
puppeting where executives masquerade as everyday consumers and post negative
reviews about their competitors. Numerous cases have come to light of hotels,
restaurants, and other businesses that pay customers to write positive evaluations on
review sites. Wikipedia can be edited by anyone. Do we care about source credibility
anymore? What does the future look like for source effects in an age when anyone can
post content, and pretend it came from a credible source?
Source credibility is the communicator’s expertise, objectivity, or trustworthiness. The
consumers have a belief that this person is competent and will provide the necessary
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
8-6
However, increased incidences of sock putting have negatively affected some sites.
Wikipedia allows anyone to edit entries, and reliability is not assured, yet, it continues to
be a valued source by some, especially students. Marketing messages that consumers
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 8, AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning Abilities)
8-28. Many universities contract with commercial companies to run campus websites and
e-mail services. These agreements provide Web services to colleges at little or no cost.
But these actions have aroused controversy because major companies pay to place
advertising on the sites. That gives marketers the opportunity to influence the attitudes of
thousands of students who are involuntarily exposed to product messages. University
administrators argue that they could not provide the services by themselves—students
expect to be able to fill out financial aid forms and register for classes online. Colleges
that do not offer such services may lose their ability to attract students. How do you feel
about this situation? Should companies be able to buy access to your eyeballs from the
school you pay to attend if it means you get access to enhanced online services in return?
Hopefully, the responses to this question will take in the full range of possibilities and a
healthy debate will ensue. Business and marketing students, however, often favor the
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning Abilities)
8-29. As more of us rely on our smartphones, advertisers are following us onto this platform.
The first iAds now appear on iPhones and iPods, and the early evidence is that they work
well. In one study (funded by Apple), people who were exposed to an iAd for
Campbell’s were more than twice as likely to recall it than those who had seen a TV ad
were. Recipients were also four times more likely to say they would buy the advertised
product. As a consumer, is this good news or bad news? How do you feel about getting
ads on your smartphone? How do you think the marketplace will react to this new
advertising medium as it becomes more commonplace?
One of the reasons students may provide for the increased effectiveness of iAds is the lack
of clutter in the format. Another reason may be the novelty of the ads. A third reason
may be consumers have less ability to block or avoid the ads than they do in other
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
8-7
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-30. An antismoking ad sponsored by the New York City Department of Health crossed the
line for many viewers. The spot showed a young boy who cries hysterically as a crowd of
adults walks by him. The voiceover says, “This is how your child feels after losing you
for a minute. Just imagine if they lost you for life.” The ad aroused a lot of controversy
because it was not clear if the child was merely acting or if the spot’s producers provoked
his tears for the camera. Is this genre of “scared straight” advertising an effective way to
convince people to curb unhealthy behaviors like smoking?
Students will find this challenge question more interesting if the instructor shows the clip
in class. Although this is an opinion question, students may feel more empathy for the
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning Abilities)
8-31. Google updated its terms of service to allow shared endorsements though it’s likely most
users don’t read these terms too carefully. Not everyone is thrilled about finding out his
or her comments appear in an ad without giving explicit permission. Users who claimed
the company had not adequately notified them about how it was using endorsements sued
Facebook. What should be the platform’s obligation to ask permission? Are we as
consumers responsible for whatever it does so long as we agree to the site’s terms of
service (and read the fine print)?
Student responses will vary, but should consider intention versus behavior. Attitudes have
both direction and strength. Normative influence can result in a contradiction between
8-32. The Coca-Cola Company pulled a UK Internet promotion campaign after parents accused
it of targeting children by using references to a notorious pornographic movie. As part of
its efforts to reach young social media users for its Dr. Pepper brand, the company took
over consenting users’ Facebook status boxes. Then, the company would post mildly
embarrassing questions such as “Lost my special blankie. How will I go sleepies?” and
“What’s wrong with peeing in the shower?” However, when a parent discovered that her
14-year old daughter’s profile had been updated with a message that directly referred to a
hardcore porn film, the plan backfired and Coke had to pull the promotion. What does it
take to get the attention of jaded young people, who are exposed to all kinds of messages
in cyberspace? What guidelines (if any) should marketers follow when they try to talk to
young people on social media platforms?
Social media can be effective platforms for marketers to reach young people because of
the amount of time young people spend on social networking sites. Marketers can use
Students will have different opinions about the guidelines marketers should follow, and
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning Abilities)
8-33. A flog is a fake blog a company posts to build buzz around its brand. Is this ethical?
Most students will see these “gray area” tactics as just another way of doing business.
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 8, AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning Abilities)
8-34. The sleeper effect implies that perhaps we shouldn’t worry too much, about how
positively people evaluate a source. Similarly, there is a saying in public relations that
“any publicity is good publicity.” Do you agree?
There will certainly be exceptions to this. The good thing about publicity is that it is free.
Thus, when a company of any kind is getting publicity, they are getting free promotion.
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 8, AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning Abilities)
8-35. Discuss some conditions that would cause you to advise a marketer to use a comparative
advertising strategy.
Comparative advertising may be effective for low-involvement products, like convenience
goods, new brands that have advantages over existing brands, and brands that are
experiencing decreased sales using non-comparative advertising. Comparative ads are
more effective when brands have a positive image. For new product introductions,
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-36. The American Medical Association encountered a firestorm of controversy when it
agreed to sponsor a line of health care products manufactured by Sunbeam (a decision it
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
8-9
later reversed). Should trade or professional organizations, journalists, professors, and
others endorse specific products at the expense of other offerings?
This question addresses the issue that not all people who endorse products are
necessarily celebrities or models. The effect of the endorsement can be very strong,
however, because of the element of trust and respect (or even the power of
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 8, AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning Abilities)
8-37. Many, many companies rely on celebrity endorsers as communications sources to
persuade. Especially when targeting younger people, these spokespeople often are “cool”
musicians, athletes, or movie stars. In your opinion, who would be the most effective
celebrity endorser today and why? Who would be the least effective? Why?
As with the previous question, students should use more than just their opinions. Direct
(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 8, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-38. Swiss Legend, a watch brand, gets famous people to wear its colorful timepieces. One
way it does this is to give away its product at awards shows. Publicists call this common
practice “gifting the talent”: Companies provide stars with “goody bags” full of
complimentary products. What do you think about the practice of “gifting the talent” in
order to accumulate endorsements? Is this a sound strategy? Is it ethical for celebrities to
accept these gifts
Although this may be considered a gray area promotional technique, it does not carry
with it the level of deception that flogging does. Many fans and viewers are aware that
(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 8, AACSB: Reflective Thinking and Ethical Understanding and
Reasoning Abilities)
8-39. Watchdog groups have long decried product placements because they blur the line
between content and advertising without adequately informing viewers. The networks
themselves appear to be divided on how far they want to open the gate. According to one
study, the effectiveness of product placement varies by product category and type of
placement. Consumers indicate that product placements have the most influence on their
grocery, electronics, and apparel purchases. The most common platform for a placement
is to get a brand shown on a T-shirt or other piece of an actor’s wardrobe. What do you
think about this practice? Under what condition is product placement likely to influence
you and your friends? When (if ever) is it counterproductive?
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
8-10
Product placement and celebrity endorsement can add credibility and recognition.
Product placement is the insertion of real products in fictional movies, TV shows, books,
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 10, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8-40. One of the most controversial intersections between marketing and society occurs when
companies provide “educational materials” to schools. Many firms, including Nike,
Hershey, Crayola, Nintendo, and Foot Locker, provide free book covers swathed in ads.
Standard art supplies, blocks, trucks, and dolls get supplemented with Milton Bradley and
Care Bears worksheets, Purell hand-cleaning activities, and Pizza Hut reading programs.
Clearasil provides sample packets of its acne medication along with brochures to educate
high school students about proper skin care; the handouts also direct students to the
Clearasil Web site where they can register for music downloads and iPods. Other
companies contract with schools to run focus groups with their students during the school
day to get reactions to new product ideas. Some schools encourage kids to practice their
math as they count Tootsie Rolls, and the kids use reading software that bears the logos of
Kmart, Coke, Pepsi, and Cap’n Crunch cereal. Many educators argue that these materials
are a godsend for resource-poor schools that otherwise could not provide computers and
other goodies to their students. However, a California law bans the use of textbooks with
brand names and company logos. This legislation was prompted by complaints from
parents about a middle-school math book that uses names such as Barbie, Oreos, Nike,
and Sony PlayStation in word problems. What’s your position on these practices? Should
corporations be allowed to promote their products in schools in exchange for donations of
educational materials, computers, and so on?
Student responses will vary, but may include discussions on product placement benefits
and drawbacks. Some students might consider a comparison with advergaming.
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 10, AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning)
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
8-11