1. Scarcity – items are more attractive when they are not available.
2. Authority – we believe authoritative sources more readily than non-authoritative
sources.
3. Consistency – people try not to contradict themselves in terms of what they say and
do about an issue.
4. Liking – we agree with those we like/admire.
5. Consensus – We consider what others do before we decide what to do.
Discussion Opportunity—Have the class think of an attitude that one or both of their parents
have. Ask them to think of a way that they could persuade them to change the attitude.
C. Tactical Communications Options – To craft persuasive messages that might change
attitudes, a number of questions must be answered:
1. Who is featured in the ad that seeks to change an attitude? Given the circumstances,
who would be best?
2. How should the message be constructed?
3. What media should be used to transmit the message?
4. What characteristics of the target market might influence the ad’s acceptance?
D. The Elements of Communication
1. Marketers and advertisers have traditionally relied on the communications model to
understand how marketing messages can change consumers’ attitudes by thinking in
terms of the communications model that specifies that a number of elements are
necessary for communications to be achieved.
2. The basic model can be perceived as having five parts:
a. The source—where the communication originates.
b. This meaning must be put in the form of a message.
c. The message must be transmitted via a medium.
d. One or more receivers then decode the message.
e. Feedback must be received by the source.
*****Use Figure 8.4 Here*******
Discussion Opportunity—Provide an illustration of the communications model described in the
chapter. What are the strengths and weaknesses of this model? How can the source be a better
communicator?
E. An Updated View: Interactive Communications
1. In permission marketing, consumers agree to allow marketers to send them
promotional information.
2. The traditional broadcasting, where the information is transferred and then repeated
before the buyer buys, is outdated with the advent of narrowcasting (finely tuning
messages to suite very small groups of receivers).
3. Consumers are partners in the communications process.
*****Use Figure 8.5 Here *****
Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to think of examples of how they are passive and active in
information acquisition. Ask how they interact with the media to receive information.
Discussion Opportunity—Ask: How are you attempting to control your own Web or Internet
environment?
F. New Message Formats
1. M-commerce (mobile commerce) involves wireless devices including smartphones,
PDAs, iPods, and tablets such as iPads.
2. Social media applications include Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn.
3. Blogging and vlogging (video blogging) is where people post messages to the Web in
diary form.
4. Podcasting—You can create your own radio show that people can listen to either on
their computers or iPods.
5. Virtual worlds—Immersive 3-D digital environments (e.g., Second Life).
6. Twitter—Postings limited to 140 characters.
7. Widgets—Small programs that users can download onto their desktops, or embed in
their blogs or profile pages, that import some form of live content.
8. Transmedia formats – new platforms mix to allow consumers to express themselves
and participate in campaigns.
a. Transmedia storytelling includes blogs, websites, email, graffiti messages
b. Alternate reality games are one type of transmedia storytelling where
thousands of people participate in a fictional story or competition to solve a
mystery.
G. The Source
1. Regardless of how a message is received, the same words uttered or written by
different people can have very different effects, also known as source effects.
2. Under most conditions, the source of a message can have a big impact on the
likelihood the message will be accepted.
3. Two very important source characteristics are credibility and attractiveness.
4. A match between the needs of the recipient and the rewards the source offers
increases the recipient’s motivation to process the message (e.g. attractive source
effective for receiver who is sensitive about social acceptance).
5. Source credibility refers to a source’s perceived expertise, objectivity, or trust-
worthiness.
a. Sincerity is important when a company tries to publicize its corporate social
responsibility (CSR) activities that benefit the community.
b. Expert or celebrity endorsements can affect stock returns and can help
differentiate similar products.
c. Negative sources can also change attitudes because people forget the negative
source (sleeper effect).
Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to think of a specific illustration of the sleeper effect.
d. Credibility can be enhanced if the source’s qualifications are perceived as
somehow relevant to the product being endorsed.
e. A consumer’s beliefs about a product’s attributes will weaken if s/he perceives
that the source is biased.
i. Knowledge bias – source’s knowledge is not accurate
ii. Reporting bias – source has the required knowledge but is not willing to
convey it accurately
Discussion Opportunity—Ask: What celebrity sources do you perceive as being most credible? Is
this in specific product or service categories or across the board?
6. Source attractiveness refers to the source’s perceived social value.
a. This quality can emanate from the person’s physical appearance, personality,
social status, or similarity to the receiver (we like to listen to people who are like
us).
b. A halo effect often occurs when persons of high rank on one dimension are
assumed to excel on others as well.
Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to give an example of the “halo effect.”
c. The social adaptation perspective assumes that the perceiver will more heavily
weight information seen to be instrumental in forming an attitude.
7. Star Power: Celebrities as Communications Sources
a. Celebrities embody cultural meanings (e.g. status, social class, gender, age,
personality) to the general society.
b. The advertiser chooses a celebrity who embodies the desired meaning the product
should convey so the meaning transfers from the manufacturer to the consumer
via the star.
Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to give an example of a celebrity that they perceive to be
an illustration of the match-up hypothesis.
Discussion Opportunity—As a means of contrasting credibility with attractiveness, ask students
to give examples of products where they would want to make sure their source is credible;
examples where their source is attractive.
8. Nonhuman Endorsers
a. At times, the image of celebrity endorsers can damage the image of a company or
brand. For this reason, companies may seek animated characters or fictitious
mascots as endorsers.
b. Spokescharacters (e.g. Pillsbury Doughboy, Chester the Cheetah) can boost
viewers’ recall of ad claims and increase brand attitudes.
c. A more current trend sees companies utilizing endorsers in the form of an avatar,
or cyber-character that can be changed in real time is cost effective, can handle
multiple customers at one time, and is not limited by geography.
Discussion Opportunity—Ask: Can you think of company spokespersons that fit the company or
the product image? Who do not fit? What should the company do about this? Give an example of
a celebrity whose image has really hurt a company’s marketing effort.
Discussion Opportunity—Ask: Name an avatar that a company currently uses in association
with a product, service, or website.
H. The Message
1. The single most important feature of the message is whether the communication
stresses a unique attribute or benefit of the product.
2. Some messages are offensive or annoying, including those:
a. That show a sensitive product and emphasize its usage
b. With a contrived or over-dramatized situation
c. That put down a person in terms of appearance, knowledge or sophistication
d. That threaten an important relationship
e. That show physical discomfort
f. That create tension via an argument or antagonistic character
g. That portray an unattractive or unsympathetic character
h. That include a sexually suggestive scene
i. That have poor casting or execution
3. How the message is said is important as well as what is said.
4. When creating a message, marketers must address these questions:
a. Should she convey the message in words or pictures?
b. How often should she repeat the message?
c. Should it draw a conclusion or should this be left up to the listener?
d. Should it present both sides of an argument?
e. Should it explicitly compare the product to competitors?
f. Should it include a blatant sexual appeal?
g. Should it arouse negative emotions such as fear?
h. How concrete or vivid should the arguments and imagery be?
i. Should it be funny?
*****Use Table 8.2 Here *****
5. How do we send the message?
a. Advertisers often rely on vivid illustrations or photography because visuals are very
effective, especially at influencing emotional responses.
b. A picture is not always as effective as text when it communicates facts. Verbal ads
affect ratings on the utilitarian aspects of a product whereas the visual ads affect
aesthetic evaluations.
c. Verbal elements are more effective when an accompanying picture reinforces them,
especially if they frame the illustration (the message in the picture strongly relates to
the copy). Framing is easier with an accompanying image.
d. Visual images allow the receiver to chunk information at the time of encoding.
e. Verbal messages are best for high-involvement situations and visual messages for low
involvement.
f. Vivid images tend to activate mental imagery and strongly embed in memory;
abstract stimuli inhibit mental imagery.
g. Concrete discussion of product attributes in ad copy influence the importance of the
attribute because it draws more attention.
h. Repetition can lead to liking because people like things that are more familiar to them
(mere exposure) or it can cause habituation such that the consumer no longer pays
attention to the stimulus because of fatigue or boredom.
i. The two-factory theory explains the fine line between boredom and familiarity. It
proposes that two separate psychological processes operate when we repeatedly show
an ad to a viewer. Figure 7.6 depicts the pattern. Overcome by:
1. Limiting exposure per repetition (15 second ads)
2. Varying content of ads over time (different versions of same theme)
*****Use Figure 8.6 Here *****
Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to think of examples when words, pictures, and both
would be the best suggestions for influencing attitudes.
6. How do we structure the argument?
a. The way the argument is presented is important.
b. The supportive argument is one sided and most often used.
c. Two-sided messages give positive and negative information. This seems most
effective when the audience is well educated.
d. Refutational arguments raise a negative issue and then dismiss it. They
enhance source credibility because of the reduced chance of reporting bias.
Skeptical people may be more receptive to a balanced argument.
Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to give an illustration of a supportive argument, a
two-sided argument, and a refutational argument. Find an example of each in a print media
form.
e. Should the argument draw conclusions? The response to this depends on the
consumer’s motivation to process the ad and the complexity of the arguments.
f. Comparative advertising compares two specifically named products and
seems to be effective for products that have a positive brand image, but may
be lower in believability and stir up source derogation (consumer may doubt
the credibility of a biased presentation).
7. New Message Format: The Social Media Revolution
a. M-commerce, or mobile commerce, can be used as a new way to transmit
information in both text and picture form, and social media applications
are now used globally.
b. Transmedia storytelling is a strategy that typically includes
communications media that range from Web sites, blogs, and email to
recorded phone calls and even graffiti messages in public spaces.
c.
I. Reality Engineering occurs when marketers appropriate elements of pop culture and uses
them as promotional vehicles.
1. Guerilla Marketing)use promotional strategies that use unconventional means to
encourage word of mouth about products.
2. Product Placement is the insertion of a real product into fictional movies, TV shows,
books, and plays
3. Advergaming is when online games merge with interactive advertisements that let
companies target specific types of consumers
1) Plinking is the act embedding a product or service link in a video
8.
Discussion Opportunity—Ask: What do you think of comparative advertising? Are the arguments
more believable? Do you ever find yourself defending the “against product”?
J. Types of Message Appeals
1. Emotional appeals try to bond the consumer with the product.
2. The effectiveness of appeals to the head vs. heart depends on the nature of the
product and the type of relationship consumers have with it.
a. Recall of ad content tends to be better for thinking ads than feeling ads
b. Conventional measures of ad effectiveness may not be effective to
measure cumulative effects of emotional ads; feeling reactions are not as
easy to articulate as thinking reactions
3. Sex appeals include various levels of erotic suggestions.
a. Female nudity generates negative feelings and tension among female
consumers; it generates positive reactions among men. Men dislike nude
males; females respond well to undressed males that are not nude and like
sexual themes in the context of a committed relationship.
b. Erotic content draws attention but can be counterproductive, making
consumers less likely to buy the product or distracting attention from other
ad contents.
Discussion Opportunity- Ask students to list real products that they have identified
in a movie or T.V. show
Use consumer behavior chapter 13 here
c. Sex appeals as an attention-getting device are more effective when the
product is related to sex.
4. Humorous appeals can get attention, but may not affect recall or product
attitudes.
a. Funny ads can provide a distraction.
b. Funny ads can inhibit counterarguing (where the consumer thinks about
reasons s/he disagrees).
c. Humor is more effective when the ad clearly identifies the brand and the
funny material does not overwhelm the message.
d. Subtle humor that does not make fun of the consumer and is appropriate to
the product image is best.
5. Fear appeals emphasize negative consequences that occur unless the
consumer changes a behavior or an attitude and are most effective when the
advertisers use only a moderate threat and when the ad presents a solution to
the problem.
Discussion Opportunity—Ask students to think of situations when a rational appeal works best
and when an emotional appeal works best. What is the effectiveness dependent on?
K. The Message as Art Form: Metaphors Be with You
1. Many ads take the form of an allegory (a story told about an abstract trait or concept
that has been personified as a person, animal, or vegetable).
2. A metaphor involves placing two dissimilar objects into a close relationship such
that “A is B,” whereas a simile compares two objects, “A is like B.” Metaphors allow
the marketer to activate meaningful images and apply them to everyday events.
3. Resonance is another literary device that is frequently used in advertising to form a
presentation that combines play on words with a relevant picture.
*****Use Table 8.3 Here; Use Consumer Behavior Challenge Here *****
Apply #10
Discussion Opportunity—Give an illustration or bring in an ad that displays a metaphor or
resonance in advertising.
4. Advertisers can structure commercials like other art forms, including structures as a
drama or a lecture.
5. In transformational advertising, the customer associates the experience of product
usage with some subjective sensation.
Discussion Opportunity—Find an ad where a story is being told. Show or read it to the class.
Ask: Do you ever catch yourself reading an ad just to see how the story ends?
Discussion Opportunity—Give an illustration of transformational advertising. Ask the class to
evaluate how well the ad applies the technique.
L. The Source Versus the Message: Sell the Steak or the Sizzle?
4. The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) assumes that once a consumer receives a
message, he or she begins to process it. Depending on the personal relevance of this
information, one of two routes to persuasion will be followed.
a. Under conditions of high involvement, a consumer takes the central route to
persuasion. In the central route to processing, the consumer will determine if the
message is relevant. The person will engage in cognitive processing to evaluate
the arguments presented and generate either positive (supporting) responses or
negative responses (counterarguments).
b. Under conditions of low involvement where the consumer is not motivated to
think about the argument, a peripheral route is taken. The consumer uses other
cues in deciding on the suitability of the message.
*****Use Figure 8.7 Here *****
Discussion Opportunity—Illustrate the elaboration likelihood model by bringing in a series of
print ads that illustrate either the central route or the peripheral route. Show them to the class
and ask the class to identify which route is more dominant. Also, ask students to point out
cognitive cues and peripheral cues in either type of ad.
Discussion Opportunity—Ask: If you were the producer of a product that was being examined by
the consumer in a peripheral way, what strategies could you suggest for dealing with this? In
what instances would this not be bad for the producer?
End-of-Chapter Support Material
SUMMARY OF SPECIAL FEATURE BOXES
1. Marketing Opportunity
Consumers like to publicize their connections with successful people or organizations. It
is called basking in reflected glory. As a result, many colleges with strong athletic
organizations reap huge revenues by licensing their school’s name and logo.
2. CB As I See It: Jennifer Escalas, Vanderbilt University
Marketers spend a lot of time and money developing a unique image for their brands.
Celebrity endorsement is one way for marketers to connect symbolic meanings to the
image of their brands. Celebrities often personify various characteristics that are useful to
the consumer such as being stylish, rugged, smart, sexy, successful, or even rebellious.
3. Marketing Pitfall
There is an inconsistency between attitude and behavior in terms of major public health
problems The CVS chain aggressively reminds people to fill their prescriptions with
texts, e-mails, and phone calls.
4. The Tangled Web
Sock puppeting refers to a company executive or agent posing as someone else to tout
the organization in social media communities. Paid influencer programs are also called
sock puppeting. These are essentially sponsored conversations. The FTC updated its
truth-in-advertising policy to require paid communicators to disclose their relationship to
the audience.
5. Marketing Pitfall
Western actors like George Clooney resist many television commercials in the U.S. but
endorse products in Japan. Visit japander.com to see such commercials.
6. Net Profit
Sites like Pandora track user preference. They then work to refine playlists and how often
they should repeat songs, developing variations based on time of day, location of the
listener and other variables.
7. CB As I See It: Pierre Chandon, INSEAD, France
Government regulators and food companies can work together to encourage consumers to
spend more for less food, and be happy about doing so. This can be done by improving
the perception of portion and package size, and focusing on sensory pleasures of food.
8. Net Profit
The band Nine Inch Nails used transmedia storytelling to promote their new album. This
including offering clues that lead to the ability to win prizes.
9. Marketing Pitfall
A series of ads created by Grey Germany were supposed to be funny, but were upsetting
to some people. The campaign suggested that is more people used condoms, the world
might not have experienced people such as Adolf Hitler.