REVIEW QUESTIONS
4-1. What is the difference between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned
stimulus?
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals, first
demonstrated this phenomenon in dogs. Pavlov induced classically conditioned
learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a stimulus known to cause a
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
4-2. Give an example of a halo effect in marketing.
People react to other, similar stimuli in much the same way they responded to the
original stimulus; this generalization is called a halo effect. A drugstore’s bottle of
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-3. How can marketers use repetition to increase the likelihood that consumers will
learn about their brand?
Many classic advertising campaigns consist of product slogans that have been
repeated so many times that they are etched in consumers’ minds. Conditioning will not
occur or will take longer if the CS is only occasionally paired with the UCS. One result
(5 minutes, Chapter Objectives 2, 3 and 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-4. Why is it not necessarily a good idea to advertise a product in a commercial
where a popular song is playing in the background?
A popular song might also be heard in many situations in which the product is not
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-5. What is the difference between classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning?
Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with
another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time, this
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-6. What is the major difference between behavioral and cognitive theories of
learning? In contrast to behavioral theories of learning, cognitive learning
problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-7. Name the three stages of information processing as we commit information about
products to memory.
Encoding, storage, and retrieval.
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 6,AACSB: Reflective Thinking -)
4-8 What is external memory and why is it important to marketers?
During the consumer decision-making process, this internal memory is combined with
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking
4-9. Give an example of an episodic memory.
Episodic memories relate to events that are personally relevant. As a result, a
person’s motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong. Couples often
have “their song” that reminds them of their first date or wedding or some
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-10. Why do U.S. phone numbers have seven digits?
Initially, researchers believed that STM was capable of processing between five and
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-11. List the three types of memory, and explain how they work together.
Sensory memory permits storage of the information we receive from our senses. This
storage is temporary; it lasts a couple of seconds at most. Short-term memory (STM)
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-12. How is associative memory like a spider web?
Knowledge structures can be thought of as complex spider webs filled with pieces of
data. This information is placed into nodes connected by associative links within these
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-13. How does the likelihood that a person wants to use an ATM machine relate to a
schema?
The desire to follow a script or schema helps to explain why such service innovations
as automatic bank machines, self-service gas stations, or “scan-your-own” grocery
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-14. Why does a pioneering brand have a memory advantage over follower brands?
Some evidence indicates that information about a pioneering brand (the first brand
to enter a market) is more easily retrieved from memory than follower brands
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Analytic Skills)
4-15. If a consumer is familiar with a product, advertising for it can work both ways by
either enhancing or diminishing recall. Why?
As a rule, prior familiarity with an item enhances its recall. This is one of the basic
goals of marketers who are trying to create and maintain awareness of their products.
The more experience a consumer has with a product, the better use he or she is able to
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-16. Define nostalgia, and tell why it is such a widely used advertising strategy.
We can describe nostalgia as a bittersweet emotion; the past is viewed with both
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-17. Name the two basic measures of memory and describe how they differ from one
another. Two basic measures of impact are recognition and recall. In the typical
recognition test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them
before. In contrast, free recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what they
(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-18. List three problems with measures of memory for advertising.
Response biases, memory lapses, and memory for facts versus feelings.
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-19. How do different types of reinforcement enhance learning? How does the strategy of
frequency marketing relate to conditioning?
Businesses can shape behavior when they gradually reinforce actions with rewards.
Instrumental conditioning occurs when behavior produce positive outcome and we
Punishment is an unpleasant event that follows an action. When a person no longer
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-20. How does learning new information make it more likely that we’ll forget things we’ve
already learned?
Decay causes a structural change in how we learn and remember. Forgetting also
occurs because of interference. When we learn new information, it displaces
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS
4-21. To hasten kids’ introduction to social media, a team of Finnish designers invented a
block-sorting toy that also works like Twitter. It allows preverbal kids to grab colorful blocks
with icons for sleeping, eating, or brushing their teeth; the kids then fit them into slots to
indicate what they’re up to. The device then transmits the “status update” to light up the
corresponding block-shape on the same toy in another household. Should very young
children be introduced to social media this way?
4-22. In his book Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking, author Malcolm Gladwell
argues that hallowed marketing research techniques like focus groups aren’t effective
because we usually react to products quickly and without much conscious thought so
it’s better just to solicit consumers’ first impressions rather than getting them to think
at length about why they buy. What is your position on this issue?
There are various concepts that students may apply to support both sides of this
argument. Both classical conditioning and behavioral instrumental conditioning would
(10 minutes, Chapter Objectives 2, 4 and 9, AACSB: Analytic Skills)
4-23. Even food can facilitate recall: One study looked at how favorite recipes stimulate
memories of the past. When the researchers asked informants to list three of their
favorite recipes and to talk about these choices, they found that people tended to link
them with memories of past events, such as childhood memories, family holidays,
milestone events (such as dishes they only make on special holidays, liked corned beef
and cabbage of St. Patrick’s Day), heirlooms (recipes handed down across generations),
and the passing of time (e.g., only eating blueberry cobbler in the summer). Indeed, one
of the most famous literary references is from the classic (3,000 page!) novel
Remembrance of Things Past by Marcel Proust. The narrator dips a pastry (a
“madeleine”) into his tea, and this action unleashes a flood of memories that drive the
rest of the book. How might marketers try to tie these powerful food-related memories
to branding strategies?
memories.
(10 minutes, Chapter Objectives 2, 4 and 9, AACSB: Analytic Skills)
4-24. Some die-hard fans were not pleased when the Rolling Stones sold the tune “Start Me
Up” for about $4 million to Microsoft that wanted the classic song to promote its
Windows 95 launch. The Beach Boys sold “Good Vibrations” to Cadbury Schweppes
for its Sunkist soft drink, Steppenwolf offered its “Born to be Wild” to plug the
Mercury Cougar, and even Bob Dylan sold “The Times They Are A-Changin’” to
Coopers & Lybrand (now called PriceWaterhouseCoopers). Other rock legends have
refused to play the commercial game, including Bruce Springsteen, the Grateful Dead,
Led Zeppelin, Fleetwood Mac, R.E.M., and U2. According to U2’s manager, “Rock
‘n’ roll is the last vestige of independence. It is undignified to put that creative effort
and hard work to the disposal of a soft drink or beer or car.” Singer Neil Young is
especially adamant about not selling out; in his song “This Note’s For You,” he croons,
“Ain’t singing for Pepsi, ain’t singing for Coke, I don’t sing for nobody, makes me
look like a joke.” What is your take on this issue? How do you react when one of your
favorite songs turns up in a commercial? Is this use of nostalgia an effective way to
market a product? Why or why not?
Student responses on this issue will range from support to opposition of artists selling
songs for commercial application. Their reasons for either will also vary. Some will
like hearing familiar songs in commercial jingles because it grabs their attention, is
(15 minutes, Chapter Objectives 2 and 9, AACSB: Analytic Skills)
APPLY
4-25. Devise a “product jingle memory test.” Compile a list of brands that are or have
been associated with memorable jingles, such as Chiquita Banana, Alka-Seltzer,
McDonald’s or even webuyanycar.com. Read this list to friends, and see how many
jingles are remembered. You may be surprised at the level of recall.
Students should be able to generate a large number of product jingles for this “memory
test.” Most of these will be highly advertised products that students have been exposed
(75 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-26. A physician borrowed a page from product marketers when she asked their advice to
help persuade people in the developing world to wash their hands habitually with soap.
Diseases and disorders caused by dirty hands—like diarrhea—kill a child somewhere
in the world about every 15 seconds, and about half those deaths could be prevented
with the regular use of soap. The project adapted techniques that major marketers use
to encourage habitual product usage of items such as skin moisturizers, disinfecting
wipes, air fresheners, water purifiers, toothpaste, and vitamins. For example, beer
commercials often depict a group of guys together, because research shows that being
with a group of friends tends to trigger habitual drinking! The researchers found that
when people in Ghana experienced a feeling of disgust, this was a cue to wash their
hands. However, as in many developing countries, toilets are actually a symbol of
cleanliness because they have replaced pit latrines. So, an advertising campaign
included messages that reminded people of the germs they could still pick up even in
modern bathrooms— mothers and children walked out of restrooms with a glowing
purple pigment on their hands that contaminated everything they touched. These
images in turn triggered the habit of hand washing and the project resulted in a
significant increase in the number of consumers who washed their hands with soap.
How can other organizations that work to improve public health, the environment, or
other social issues harness our knowledge about consumer learning and habitual
behavior to create or reenergize positive habits?
This would make an excellent take-home assignment with discussion following
during a later class. Consider assigning specific organizations or public health
(45 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-27. Identify some important characteristics for a product with a well-known brand name.
Based on these attributes, generate a list of possible brand extension or
licensing opportunities, as well as some others that consumers would not be
likely to accept.
Of course, the list of characteristics will depend on the product chosen. Generally, it
will include distinctive aspects of products. For example, BIC has successfully
extended the brand many times over in different product categories. In addition, the
(45 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4-28. Collect some pictures of “classic” products that have high nostalgia value. Show these
pictures to others and allow them to free associate. Analyze the types of memories that
are evoked, and think about how a marketer might employ these associations in a
product’s promotional strategy.
Consumers’ responses to “classic” product pictures should prove interesting to
students. They should be encouraged to evaluate the types of meaning associated with
(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 9, AACSB: Analytic Skills)
CASE STUDY TEACHING NOTES
Chapter 4 Case Study: Do Avatars Dream About Virtual
Sheep?
Summary of Case
In the years since virtual worlds came into being, marketers have been working to understand
how the time people spend in virtual worlds influences the way they learn about brands and
whether it impacts their relationship with the brand in the real world.
Suggestions for Presentation
Organizations and educators are continuing to explore the impact of avatars and virtual
worlds. You may wish to ask the class what virtual worlds they use and why.
Suggested Answers for Discussion Questions
CS 4-1. How might classical conditioning operate for a consumer who visits a new
tutoring Web site and is greeted by the Web site’s avatar who resembles Albert Einstein?
Einstein is associated with intelligence, so a consumer will feel that the website will
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
CS 4-2. How might instrumental conditioning influence a consumer who purchases a new
outfit for his avatar in a virtual world?
The new outfit will make them feel better about themselves.
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 7, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)