REVIEW
3-1. Define hedonic consumption and provide an example.
Hedonic consumption is the multi-sensory, fantasy, and emotional aspects of consumers’
interactions with products. The Owens-Corning Fiberglass Corporation was the first company to
(3 minutes, Chapter Objective 1, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
3-2. How does the sense of touch influence consumers’ reactions to products?
Moods are stimulated or relaxed based on sensations reaching the skin, whether from a luxurious
massage or the bite of a winter wind. Touch has even been shown to be a factor in sales
(3 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
3-3. Identify and describe the three stages of perception.
Exposure occurs when a stimulus comes within the range of someone’s sensory receptors.
(3 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
3-4. What is the difference between an absolute threshold and a differential threshold?
The absolute threshold refers to the minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected on a
(1 minute, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
3-5. Does subliminal perception work? Why or why not?
Some research by clinical psychologists suggests that people can be influenced by subliminal
messages under very specific conditions, though it is doubtful that these techniques would be of
(2 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
3-6. Describe two factors that can lead to stimulus adaptation.
Five factors can lead to stimulus adaptation:
Intensity: Less-intense stimuli (e.g., soft sounds or dim colors) habituate because they have
Duration: Stimuli that require relatively lengthy exposure in order to be processed tend to
Discrimination: Simple stimuli tend to habituate because they do not require
Exposure: Frequently encountered stimuli tend to habituate as the rate of exposure
Relevance: Stimuli that are irrelevant or unimportant will habituate because they fail to
(2 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
3-7. “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” Explain this statement.
Gestalt roughly means whole, pattern, or configuration, and this perspective is best summarized
(3 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
3-8. List the three semiotic components of a marketing message, giving an example of each.
The object is the product that is the focus of the message (e.g., Marlboro cigarettes). The sign is
cowboy). The interpretant is the meaning derived (e.g., rugged, individualistic, American).
(3 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
3-9. What do we mean by the concept of augmented reality? Give an example that is not discussed in
the chapter. How does this concept differ from virtual reality?
Augmented reality refers to media that superimposed one or more digital layers of data, images,
or video over a physical object. Virtual reality integrates the physical senses with digital
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
3-10. What is a positioning strategy? What are some ways marketers can position their products? A
positioning strategy is a fundamental part of a company’s marketing efforts as it uses elements of
the marketing mix (i.e., product design, price, distribution, and marketing communications) to
influence the consumer’s interpretation of its meaning. Marketers can use many dimensions to
carve out a brand’s position in the marketplace. These include:
Lifestyle: Grey Poupon mustard is a “higher-class” condiment.
Price leadership: L’Oreal’s Noisôme brand face cream is sold in upscale beauty shops,
Attributes: Bounty paper towels are “the quicker picker upper.”
Product class: The Mazda Miata is a sporty convertible.
(5 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CHALLENGE
DISCUSS
3-11. Assuming that some forms of subliminal persuasion may have the desired effect of
influencing consumers, do you think the use of these techniques is ethical? Explain your answer.
Many students will consider the use of subliminal persuasion to be unethical. Accordingly, a
discussion could focus on why subliminal messages are undesirable. An interesting issue to raise
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning Abilities,)
3-12. The slogan for the movie Godzilla was “Size does matter.” Should this be the slogan for
the United States as well? Many marketers seem to believe so. The average serving size for a
fountain drink has gone from 12 ounces to 20 ounces. An industry consultant explains that the
32-ounce Big Gulp is so popular because “people like something large in their hands. The larger
the better.” Some cities (most noteably New York) have tried to ban sales of sugary drinks greater
than 24 ounces but so far unsuccessfully. Hardee’s Monster Burger, complete with two beef
patties and five pieces of bacon, weighs in at 63 grams of fat and more than 1,000 calories. The
standard for TV sets used to be 19 inches; now it is 32 inches and growing. Hulking SUVs have
replaced tiny sports cars as the status vehicle of the new millennium. What’s up with our
fascination with bigness: Is this a uniquely U.S. preference? Do you believe that “bigger is
better”? Is this a sound marketing strategy?
This question comprises multiple questions. The first, “What’s up with our fascination with
bigness?” is very general and should spark some general comments or discussion. If anything
specific is to come from this particular question, students should be directed to theorize as to
“why” people in the United States prefer bigger sizes. The second question, “Is this a uniquely
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
3-13. Augmented reality applications may reach the level of sophistication where we observe
almost everything through the screen of our smartphones in order to receive an “enhanced”
experience. Do you view this as a positive development or a problem?
Augmented reality can add value to a consumer’s experience by allowing consumers to apply an
additional layer of data/images to their existing views, which can deepen the consumer’s
understanding of the product/product features. Marketers can use this additional layer to provide
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking and Ethical Understanding and
Reasoning Skills)
3-14. The chapter notes that marketers may elect to shrink the amount of product it sells
and
maintain the same price rather than raise the price. Is this ethical?
This question needs to be split into two parts: 1) whether marketers have the right to charge the
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Analytic Skills)
3-15. Define a schema and provide an example of how this concept is relevant to marketing.
A schema is a set of belief that we use to assign meaning to something. It is critical that
marketing decisions are based on what criteria consumers will use to evaluate a product or
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Analytic Skills)
3-16. – There is an ERROR in the printed text and there is not a question 3-16 listed.
APPLY
3-17. Interview three to five male and three to five female friends about their perceptions of
both men’s and women’s fragrances. Construct a perceptual map for each set of products. Based
on your map of perfumes, do you see any areas that are not adequately served by current
offerings? What (if any) gender differences did you obtain regarding both the relevant
dimensions used by raters and the placement of specific brands along these dimensions?
Have the students start this project by listing a number of descriptive words that are or could be
used when positioning perfumes in the market place. Have them ask the respondents to position
various perfumes on the map according to their impressions of the perfumes selected. For the
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
3-18. Using magazines archived in the library, track the packaging of a specific brand over
time. Find an example of gradual changes in package design that may have been below the
j.n.d.
You might give a few hints here. For example, Aunt Jemima, the Morton Salt Girl, and Betty
Crocker are trademarks that changed over time .d can be found in ads. Package changes
include Ivory Soap, Kellogg’s Rice Krispies, and Campbell Soup. Students can simply examine
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
3-19. Visit a set of websites for one type of product (e.g., personal computers, perfumes,
laundry detergents, or athletic shoes) and analyze the colors and other design principles
employed. Which sites “work” and which don’t? Why? Look through a current magazine and
select one ad that captures your attention over the others. Explain why this ad attracts you.
See if the students will notice how similar many of the products and brands are in terms of
(Possible At-Home Project Idea)
After students have indicated what ad caught their attention, probe to see if there are any other
reasons. This is a good opportunity to remind students about what ads are likely to get their
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 5, AACSB: Analytical Thinking)
3-20 Find ads that utilize the techniques of contrast and novelty. Give your opinion of the
effectiveness of each ad and whether the technique is likely to be appropriate for the consumers
the ad targets.
Opinions will vary here. Some people like novelty in most everything, while others want people to
be more serious. You should look for students to identify different ways marketers create a
(15 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
3-21. Assume that you are a consultant for a marketer who wants to design a package for a new premium
chocolate bar targeted to an affluent market. What recommendations would you provide in terms of such
package elements as color, symbolism, and graphic design? Give reasons for your suggestions.
Answer will vary here. Some terms that will be used are luxury, best, and ultimate. Color will vary from
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
CASE STUDY TEACHING NOTES
Chapter 3 Case Study: The Brave New World of Subway Advertising
Summary of Case
Various agencies around the world have pioneered a technology that allows for static images placed in
subway tunnels to appear as full-motion commercials. This represents one of many developments in
recent years to break through ad clutter to capture consumers’ attention with a novel type of advertising in
a place that consumers do not expect it. The ad medium is rolling out in subway tunnels of major cities
worldwide. The most notable part of this new development is that public reaction has been
overwhelmingly positive. Transit officials, agency representatives, and corporate advertisers alike have
been given kudos for turning dark and dreary tunnels into something entertaining for commuters.
Suggestions for Presentation
This case could be assigned as an out-of-class or in-class activity. As an in-class activity, it might be more
effective to have the class read it, then break them into small groups to discuss the questions. This is
because a good response to the questions would require a consideration of various chapter concepts. The
small group discussion could then be followed up with a large group review.
The case allows for some application to the sections on exposure (Which of the five senses does this ad
type appeal to most? What are the implications of this for advertisers?) and interpretation (How does
placement of an ad in this context affect positioning? How does the nature of different target segments of
subway riders affect interpretation?). Thus, this case can be used to illustrate the entire process of
perception as explained in the chapter.
This case allows for the psychological processes of perception to be linked to real-world marketing
implications. One item of interest not mentioned in the case that may be brought up during discussion is
how this unique appeal to the perception processes of consumers has created value for multiple
constituencies:
The consumers—the positive reception indicates that the ads have entertainment value during
an otherwise boring commute.
The media agencies—these agencies are new ventures carving out a multi-million dollar
industry. The cost of subway ads ranges from $35,000 a month to $250,000 a month depending
on the route.
The advertisers—there is no shortage of promotional choices for corporations and non- profit
organizations. However, subway tunnel advertising gives marketers one of the few options that
breaks through ad clutter in such a way that the consumer wants to see the ad, not to avoid it.
The transit agencies—most metropolitan transit agencies are struggling with ever tightening
budgets and with the balance of fare prices and demand. Many are therefore searching for
additional revenue streams such as concessions or advertising. Although in- station and in-train
advertising has been around since the early 1900s, subway tunnel agencies are forecasting that a
single transit company (which would receive between 25 percent and 60 percent of the revenues)
could earn as much as $200 million over 5 years.
Suggested Answers For Discussion Questions
CS 3.1 Based on the principles of attention presented in this chapter, explain why riders receive these
ads so positively. Be sure to consider the possible stimulus selection factors that apply.
This case is suited for illustrating various aspects of the perceptual process, including sensation,
exposure, attention, and interpretation. However, the concepts that best explain why this new
advertising medium should initially be successful are the stimulus selection factors of position
and novelty that contribute to attention. With respect to position, subway ads come into full view,
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
CS 3.2 It has been shown that consumers can habituate to a stimulus. Is there anything the ads’ creators
should know about adaptation and its potential impact on the success of these ads over time?
Some estimates show that more than 92 percent of consumers remember the advertised product,
whereas only 13 percent have the same level of recall when they see an ad on television.
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
CS 3-3. As you consider the companies that have used tunnel advertising, are there brands or products that
would not be a good fit for this medium? Be prepared to justify your response with examples.
Answers may vary by students. Examples may include brands or products that use ads that are
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
Additional Support Material
STUDENT PROJECTS
Individual Projects
1. Visit a department store through its perfume/cologne/cosmetics section. Do the scents have
enough of an appeal to motivate buying? Does it appear that each of these is appealing to the
sense of smell in a strategic manner?
For most shoppers, perfumes, colognes and cosmetics may be an impulse purchase. The products
are important to the department stores because they tend to have high margins. In fact, students
should have difficulty remembering discounts associated with these products – companies are
(10 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
2. Ask students to find three ads that contain symbolism. Examine the symbols and discuss the
meaning the symbols convey. Encourage the student to identify the different types of signs used
in the ads and the product qualities being communicated by each. Additionally, find a symbol
that might not or should not be used in advertising in the cultural context of America. Why
would you not utilize it?
The three types of signs discussed in the chapter are icons (signs that resemble products), indexes
(signs connected to products because they share a property with the product), and symbols (signs
related to the product through conventional or agreed-upon associations). You may ask students
to find an ad that represents each of these three types of signs to help reinforce the differences
(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
3. What are the symbols of “green marketing”? Students need to review then and opine
whether or not they are effective.
On the most basic level, companies’ uses of the color green, and its associations with
environmental protection and the widely recognized symbol for recycling are likely to
come up. However, the discussion is likely to go beyond the recycling symbol and the use of the
color green because the use of symbols in green marketing (identified in chapter one as
marketing practices that promote a firm’s efforts to protect or enhance the natural environment as
they go about their business activities) is a hot topic that may stimulate debate among students.
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
4. Here is a field project that students always like. Have students (you might have only one or a
few students do this as a special or alternative assignment) photocopy or print a collection of
brand/product symbols (an alternative would be to have students create a PowerPoint
presentation with images inserted to be projected in the classroom for all to see). Then have this
(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Communication Abilities)
5. Here is a tough assignment for an undergraduate. Ask students to spend an afternoon
watching a popular soap opera or an evening watching a favorite television show. Ask them to
be particularly observant of the various products and services that are used as props during
the show. Do these products or services have any symbolic value? How would viewer
perception be different if alternative brands or even generic brands had been used? To what
(75 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
6. Have students visit a grocery store and pick out five products. They should identify how each
appeal to the five senses. How are they the same? How are they different? To what extent do any
of them appear to be strategically designed to appeal to the five senses? This project is a good
way to reinforce the five senses and how marketers use appeals to each. Due to the popularity of
sensory marketing as a way to differentiate products, students will be able to find a wide variety
(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking, Analytic Skills
7. While viewing one hour of television, what types of companies focus the most on factors that
might affect “perceptual vigilance” in their advertisements? Have students write about examples
of instances when they have used or experienced “perceptual vigilance” and “perceptual
defense.” Have them share their experiences with the class.
This exercise is similar to the suggested discussion topic associated with perceptual vigilance,
which is when consumers are more likely to be aware of stimuli that relate to their current needs.
Marketers may try to connect their products with current needs (e.g. clothing retailers and mass
discount stores talking about how the products can be used for back to school) or use the
(75 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
8. As part of your class preparation, devise an experiment that can be done in class to demonstrate
perceptual selection. You might even review the psychology and consumer behavior literature
for ideas.
This activity is something you can prepare or something you can ask a student to prepare. There
are YouTube videos (e.g. the one with people passing a basketball where a gorilla walks across
the room) and examples of ads in presentations that are posted on SlideShare that may provide
(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 4, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
9. Examples of hyperreality are becoming increasingly common in our society. Have each student
locate (either through their own observations or through reviewing articles in the popular and
trade press) an example of hyperreality. Is the example chosen one in which the marketer
strategically facilitated the “hyperreal” phenomenon, or did the transition occur independent of
the marketer? How does the chosen example contribute to the relationship between the product
and the consumer?
Hyperreality occurs when advertisers create new relationships between objects and interpretants
by inventing new connections between products and benefits. Students may identify reverse
(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
Group Projects
1. Develop a print and/or video ad for a product/brand that includes as many of the sensory stimuli
as possible in order to convey the environmental message.
Students will require some time to prepare their ads. Remind them to think about the one message
they want to get across and to think about how they can use the stimuli to help break through the
clutter. Print ads are generally easier to prepare, but many students have video functionality on
(120 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
2. Collect a variety of packages of children’s and adults’ breakfast cereals. How different are the
j.n.d strategies for each market? Catalog various j.n.d strategies utilized and state whether they
are likely to be effective for any other products. If your group were marketing the cereal, what
would you have done differently?
Students may want to go beyond the current packages available on the shelves to look for historic
images of packages, which are readily available online. Frosted Flakes and Lucky Charms are
(90 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
3. Have student groups find three examples of brands or companies that have made changes to their
products (i.e., retail chain re-designing their stores, a new logo, etc.). Have them discuss how the
concept of “just noticeable difference” might affect consumer perceptions of these changes. Are
the changes something that the marketers wanted to be noticed?
Students should recognize that marketers want some changes to go unnoticed (e.g. smaller
package sizes, less oz. per package for the same price resulting in an increase in price) while
where food inflation is hidden by smaller (sometimes marketed as healthier or more
(60 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
eLAB
Individual Assignments
1. Visit www.globalgreen.org . What are some of the sensory cues they are utilizing in order to
attract your attention to various subjects/topics and ads?
The most obvious response will be the use of visual cues. Color, size of headlines, font style, and
use of motion may be mentioned among the visual cues. Students may try to connect the use of
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
2. Go to www.tvguide.com . On the opening Web page, how many ads (including pop-ups) do you
notice? Compare and contrast the approach of each ad to exposure, attention, and interpretation.
Comment on how the consumer goes through these steps when being exposed to each ad.
Provide an illustration of your description.
Student responses will vary. In some cases, most of the advertising space on the website (top, side
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
3. Go to www.toyota.com/prius . Prius has focused its promotional efforts on the Internet and other
non-traditional media. Is this website a good way to promote a car? In terms of concepts of
perception, why or why not?
Students will have different opinions about whether the website is a good way to promote a car,
so look for ways they support their opinions with the concepts of perception. For example,
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 3, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
4. Go to www.leapfrog.com or www.pbskids.org . These sites are designed to facilitate learning
amongst children. Compare and contrast these sites for sensory stimulation, attention value, and
ability to promote a sale of the product. How are semiotics used on these sites?
Students should recognize that the websites have different goals – leapfrog.com sells educational
toys, and pbskid.org promotes (sells) educational programs (using games and videos). The
target audience for the two websites varies as well. PBSkids.org is more visually oriented and
For example, they may identify the books at leapfrog.com as the object, the leapfrog as the sign,
(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Reflective Thinking)
5. Go to www.bose.com . Bose promises that once you listen to their Quiet Comfort 3 headphones
you will never be satisfied with another comparable unit. Determine the competitive advantages
and disadvantages of the Quiet Comfort 3. How does the company use sensory stimulation to
promote the product? What key words can be used to evoke a response from consumers? Is the
Bose approach effective? Explain.
Students should take the time to read the copy and watch the video about the Bose Quiet
Comfort 3 headphones and form opinions about Bose’s approach. Look for students to explain
why they feel the Bose approach is/is not effective in a way that relates back to the content from
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
Group Assignments
1. Go to www.crutchfield.com . Spend some time becoming familiar with this website. The group
should evaluate the Crutchfield’s strategy. What is it? What do you think will be the long-term
result of the strategy you just described? How is the organization using exposure, attention, and
interpretation to its benefit? What does the group think will be the secrets of success for
Crutchfield? The seeds of failure? Which symbols should be used to ensure success? Which
should be avoided?
Crutchfield.com sells electronics online. When the group reviews the company’s strategy, they
should consider whom the company targets, how they position their offerings, and how the
students may find it helpful to examine each of these aspects in light of the market and the
(30 minutes, Chapter Objective 6, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)
2. Go to www.apple.com . Your group assignment is to analyze how Apple used color and design
to differentiate the iPod line from other mp3 players. Give illustrations of what was done. Was
this a good strategy? What target markets were pursued? How did Apple use exposure,
attention, and interpretation to their advantage? What are the criticisms about the iPod line? Can
color and design overcome these criticisms? Is Apple using some of these same strategies for its
iPhone brand?
The iPod and the iPhone are found on different sections of the website. For the first part,
students should identify the use of the visual appeals and iPod’s use of color to differentiate its
mp3 players. Some students may remember the iPod campaign, which showed silhouettes of iPod
users, with the distinctive ear buds, against backgrounds of various bold colors. Students may
connect the campaign to their understanding of contrast, a way to get consumers’ attentions.
(20 minutes, Chapter Objective 2, AACSB: Application of Knowledge)