A. Distortions, ambiguities, and incongruities between verbal and nonverbal messages all
increase uncertainty and reduce satisfaction. Careful attention to the methods and modes
for each communication better ensures that the message is properly interpreted by the
receiver. Specific implications for managers are below:
1. Remember that your communication mode will partly determine your communication
effectiveness.
2. Obtain feedback from your employees to make certain your messages— however
they are communicated—are understood.
3. Remember that written communication creates more misunderstandings than oral
communication; communicate with employees through in-person meetings when
possible.
4. Make sure you use communication strategies appropriate to your audience and the
type of message you’re sending.
5. Keep in mind communication barriers such as gender and culture.
EXPANDED CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Functions of Communication
A. Communication serves five major functions within a group or organization: management,
feedback, emotional sharing, persuasion, and information exchange.
B. Communication acts to manage member behavior in several ways.
1. Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines employees are
required to follow.
2. When employees follow their job descriptions or comply with company policies,
communication performs a management function.
3. Informal communication controls behavior too. When workgroups tease or harass a
member who produces too much (and makes the rest of the members look bad), they
are informally communicating and managing the member’s behavior.
C. Communication creates feedback by clarifying to employees what they must do, how
well they are doing it, and how they can improve their performance.
1. Formation of goals, feedback on progress, and reward for desired behavior all require
communication and stimulate motivation.
D. Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show
satisfaction and frustration.
E. Communication, therefore, provides for the emotional sharing of feelings and fulfillment
of social needs.
1. For example, after a white police officer shot an unarmed black man in Ferguson,
Missouri in 2015, software engineer Carl Jones wanted to process his feelings
through talking with his coworkers at his corporation.
2. As a second example, Starbucks had baristas write “Race Together” on coffee cups to
start conversations about race relations.
3. In both cases, the initial communications were awkward—so awkward that Starbucks
pulled the campaign—but Jones and others have forged solid relationships from their
emotional sharing.
F. Like emotional sharing, persuasion can be good or bad depending on if, say, a leader is
trying to persuade a workgroup to believe in the organization’s commitment to corporate
social responsibility (CSR) or to, conversely, persuade the workgroup to break the law to
meet an organizational goal.
G. The final function of communication is information exchange to facilitate decision
making.
1. Communication provides the information individuals and groups need to make
decisions by transmitting the data needed to identify and evaluate choices.
H. Almost every communication interaction that takes place in a group or organization
performs one or more of these functions, and none of the five is more important than the
others.
1. To perform effectively, groups need to maintain some control over members, provide
feedback to stimulate members to perform, allow emotional expression, monitor the
persuasive efforts of individuals, and encourage information exchange.
II. The Communication Process (Exhibit 11-1)
A. Before communication can take place, a purpose expressed as a message to be conveyed
is needed.
1. It passes between a source (the sender) and a receiver.
B. The message is encoded (converted to symbolic form) and is passed by way of some
medium (channel) to the receiver, who retranslates (decodes) the message initiated by the
sender.
C. The result is transference of meaning from one person to another.
D. The communication process is made up of eight parts: the sender, encoding, the
message, the channel, decoding, the receiver, noise, and feedback.
1. The sender initiates a message by encoding a thought.
2. The message is the actual physical product of the sender’s encoding.
E. The channel is the medium through which the message travels.
1. The sender selects it, determining whether to use a formal or informal channel.
2. Formal channels are established by the organization and transmit messages related
to the professional activities of members.
a. They traditionally follow the authority chain within the organization.
3. Other forms of messages, such as personal or social, follow informal channels,
which are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices.
F. The receiver is the person(s) to whom the message is directed, who must first translate
the symbols into understandable form.
1. This step is the decoding of the message.
G. Noise represents communication barriers that distort the clarity of the message, such as
perceptual problems, information overload, semantic difficulties, or cultural differences.
H. The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop.
1. Feedback is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages
as originally intended.
2. It determines whether understanding has been achieved.
III. Direction of Communication
A. Downward Communication
1. Communication that flows from one level of a group organization to a lower level is
downward communication.
a. This is typically what we think of when managers communicate with workers.
2. Its purpose is to assign goals, provide instructions, communicate policies and
procedures, provide feedback, etc.
3. When engaging in downward communication, managers must explain the reasons
why a decision was made.
a. Evidence indicates that explanations increase employee commitment and support
of decisions.
4. Another problem in downward communication is its one-way nature; generally,
managers inform employees but rarely solicit their advice or opinions.
5. The best communicators explain the reasons behind their downward communications
but also solicit communication from the employees they supervise.
B. Upward Communication
1. Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or organization.
2. It is used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress, and relay
current problems.
3. Managers rely on upward communication for ideas on how conditions can be
improved.
a. To engage in effective upward communication, communicate in headlines not
paragraphs, support your headlines with actionable items, and prepare an agenda
to make sure you use your boss’s attention well.
C. Lateral Communication
1. When communication takes place among members of the same work group, among
members of work groups at the same level, among managers at the same level, or
among any horizontally equivalent personnel, it is called lateral communication.
2. Lateral communications are often necessary to save time and facilitate coordination.
3. In some cases, these lateral relationships are formally sanctioned.
4. Often, they are informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy and expedite
action.
5. They can create dysfunctional conflicts when the formal vertical channels are
breached, when members go above or around their superiors to get things done, or
when bosses find out that actions have been taken or decisions made without their
knowledge.
D. Formal Small-Group Networks
1. Formal organizational networks can be complicated, including hundreds of people
and a half-dozen or more hierarchical levels.
2. To simplify, we’ve condensed these networks into three common small groups of five
people each: chain, wheel, and all-channel. (Exhibit 11-2)
a. The chain rigidly follows the formal chain of command; this network
approximates the communication channels you might find in a rigid three-level
organization.
b. The wheel relies on a central figure to act as the conduit for all group
communication; it simulates the communication network you would find on a
team with a strong leader.
c. The all-channel network permits group members to actively communicate with
each other; it’s most often characterized in practice by self-managed teams, in
which group members are free to contribute and no one person takes on a
leadership role.
3. As Exhibit 11-3 demonstrates, the effectiveness of each network depends on the
dependent variable that concerns you.
4. The structure of the wheel facilitates the emergence of a leader, the all-channel
network is best if you desire high member satisfaction, and the chain is best if
accuracy is most important.
5. Exhibit 11-3 leads us to the conclusion that no single network will be best for all
occasions.
E. The Grapevine
1. The informal communication network in a group or organization is called the
grapevine.
2. The grapevine is an important part of any group or organization communication
network.
a. It gives managers a feel for the morale of their organization, identifies issues
employees consider important, and helps tap into employee anxieties.
3. The grapevine also serves employees’ needs: small talk creates a sense of closeness
and friendship among those who share information, although research suggests it
often does so at the expense of those in the “out” group.
4. There is also evidence that gossip is driven largely by employee social networks that
managers can study to learn more about how positive and negative information is
flowing through their organization.
5. Managers should minimize the negative consequences of rumors by limiting their
range and impact. (Exhibit 11-4)
IV. Modes of Communication
A. Oral Communication
1. Oral communication is the primary means of conveying messages. Speeches, formal
one-on-one and group discussions, and the informal rumor mill or grapevine are
popular forms of oral communication.
a. Advantages are speed and feedback.
b. A major disadvantage arises when the message must be passed through a number
of people: the more people, the more the potential for distortion.
2. Meetings – can be formal or informal, include two or more people, and take place in
almost any venue.
3. Videoconferencing and Conference Calling – permits employees and clients to
conduct real-time meetings with people at different locations.
4. Telephone – offers many of the benefits of meetings (formal and informal), and can
prompt immediate response.
B. Written Communication
1. Written communications include memos, letters, e-mail, instant messaging,
periodicals, and any other method that conveys written words or symbols.
2. Letters – the oldest and most enduring form of written communication.
3. PowerPoint – can be an excellent mode of communication because it combines
words with visual elements to engage the reader and help explain complex ideas.
4. E-mail – has become so persuasive it’s hard to imagine life without it.
a. Many managers report that they spend too much time on e-mail.
(Exhibit 11-5)
5. Instant Messaging – a synchronous technology, meaning that you need to be there to
receive the message.
6. Text Messaging – usually done via cell phone and often as a real-time alternative to
phone calls.
7. Social Media – transformed communication.
a. Many organizations have their own in-house social networking applications,
known as enterprise social software.
8. Blogs – short for web log – a website about a single person or company.
9. Others – Flickr, Pinterest, Google+, and so on.
C. Nonverbal Communication
1. Every time we deliver a verbal message, we also impart an unspoken message.
Sometimes the nonverbal component may stand alone.
2. No discussion of communication would thus be complete without consideration of
nonverbal communication—which includes body movements, the intonations or
emphasis we give to words, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the
sender and receiver.
3. We could argue that every body movement has meaning, and no movement is
accidental (though some are unconscious).
a. We act out our state of being with nonverbal body language.
b. A body position or movement can communicate something of the emotion behind
a message, but when it is linked with spoken language, it gives fuller meaning to a
sender’s message.
i. If you read the verbatim minutes of a meeting, you wouldn’t grasp the impact
of what was said the same way as if you had been there or could see the
meeting on video.
ii. There is no record of nonverbal communication.
iii. The emphasis given to words or phrases is missing.
iv. Exhibit 11-6 illustrates how intonations can change the meaning of a message.
v. Facial expressions also convey meaning.
4. Physical distance also has meaning.
a. What is considered proper spacing between people largely depends on cultural
norms.
b. A businesslike distance in some European countries feels intimate in many parts
of North America.
c. If someone stands closer to you than is considered appropriate, it may indicate
aggressiveness or sexual interest; if farther away, it may signal disinterest or
displeasure with what is being said.
V. Choice of Communication Channel
A. People choose one channel of communication over another for several reasons. A model
of media richness has been developed to explain channel selection among managers.
B. Channel Richness
1. Channels differ in their capacity to convey information.
2. Some are rich in that they have the ability to:
a. Handle multiple cues simultaneously.
b. Facilitate rapid feedback.
c. Be very personal.
3. As Exhibit 11-7 illustrates, face-to-face conversation scores highest in channel
richness because it transmits the most information per communication episode—
multiple information cues (words, postures, facial expressions, gestures, intonations),
immediate feedback (both verbal and nonverbal), and the personal touch of being
present.
4. Others are lean in that they score low on these factors.
a. Impersonal written media such as formal reports and bulletins rate lowest in
richness.
C. Choosing Communication Methods
1. The choice of one channel over another depends on whether the message is routine.
2. Routine messages tend to be straightforward and have a minimum of ambiguity.
a. Nonroutine messages tend to be complicated and have the potential for
misunderstanding.
b. Routine messages can efficiently be communicated through channels that are
lower in richness. However, nonroutine messages can effectively be
communicated only by selecting rich channels.
3. Whenever you need to gauge the receiver’s receptivity, oral communication is usually
the better choice.
4. Written communication is generally the most reliable more for complex and lengthy
communications, and can be the most efficient for short messages as well.
5. Choose written communication when you want the information to be tangible and
verifiable.
a. People are usually forced to think more thoroughly about what they want to
convey in a written message than in a spoken one, so your written communication
can also be well thought out, logical, and clear.
6. Letters are used in business primarily for networking purposes and when signatures
need to be authentic.
7. In general, respond to instant messages only when they are professional, and initiate
them only when you know they will be welcome.
8. There are significant gains and challenges from the introduction of text messaging in
business settings.
a. Texts are cheap to send and receive, and the willingness to be available for quick
communications from clients and managers is conducive to good business.
b. However, some users view text messaging as intrusive and distracting.
9. On the corporate level, the returns on using social media are mixed.
a. If you want to use social media for business purposes as a manager, make certain
you are connected with all levels of management engaged in the effort.
b. Use discretion about which social media platforms are acceptable for business
communications.
c. Make sure you know your company’s social media policies about corporate
confidentiality and your company’s view on your privacy.
10. As an individual, you may choose to post a blog to your own blog page, or you may
choose to comment on another person’s blog.
a. If someone in the company happens to read a critical or negative blog entry or
post, there is nothing to keep him or her from sharing that information with
others.
11. It’s important to be alert to nonverbal aspects of communication and look for
nonverbal cues as well as the literal meaning of a sender’s words.
D. Information Security
1. Security is a huge concern for nearly all organizations with private or proprietary
information about clients, customers, and employees.
2. Organizations worry about the security of the electronic information they seek to
protect, such as hospital patient data, the physical information they still keep in file
cabinets, and the security of the information they entrust their employees with
knowing.
3. Most companies actively monitor employee Internet use and e-mail records, and some
even use video surveillance and record phone conversations.
4. Necessary though they may be, such practices can seem invasive to employees.
5. An organization can relieve employee concerns by engaging them in the creation of
information-security policies and giving them some control over how their personal
information is used.
VI. Persuasive Communications
A. Automatic and Controlled Processing
1. To understand the process of communication, it is useful to consider two relatively
different ways that we process information.
2. We often rely on automatic processing, a relatively superficial consideration of
evidence and information making use of heuristics, like those we discussed in
Chapter 6.
a. Automatic processing takes little time and low effort, so it makes sense to use it
for processing persuasive messages related to topics you don’t care much about.
b. The disadvantage is that it lets us be easily fooled by a variety of tricks, like a cute
jingle or glamorous photo.
3. Now consider the last time you chose a place to live. You probably did some
independent research among experts who know something about the subject, gathered
information about prices from a variety of sources, and considered the costs and
benefits of renting versus buying.
4. This is called controlled processing, a detailed consideration of evidence and
information relying on facts, figures, and logic.
a. Controlled processing requires effort and energy, but it’s harder to fool someone
who has taken the time and effort to engage in it.
5. There are a few rules of thumb for determining what types of processing an audience
will use.
B. Interest Level
1. One of the best predictors of whether people will use an automatic or controlled
process for reacting to a persuasive message is their level of interest in it.
2. Interest levels reflect the impact a decision is going to have on your life.
a. When people are very interested in the outcome of a decision, they’re more likely
to process information carefully.
b. That’s probably why people look for so much more information when deciding
about something important (like where to live) than something relatively
unimportant (like which soda to drink).
C. Prior Knowledge
1. People who are very well informed about a subject area are also more likely to use
controlled processing strategies.
a. They have already thought through various arguments for or against a specific
course of action, and therefore they won’t readily change their position unless
very good, thoughtful reasons are provided.
2. On the other hand, people who are poorly informed about a topic can change their
minds more readily, even in the face of fairly superficial arguments presented without
a great deal of evidence.
a. In other words, a better informed audience is likely to be much harder to
persuade.
D. Personality
1. Are you the type of person who always likes to read at least five reviews of a movie
before deciding whether to see it?
a. If so, you are probably high in need for cognition, a personality trait of
individuals who are most likely to be persuaded by evidence and facts.
b. Those who are lower in need for cognition are more likely to use automatic
processing strategies, relying on intuition and emotion to guide their evaluation of
persuasive messages.
E. Message Characteristics
1. Another factor that influences whether people use an automatic or controlled
processing strategy is the characteristics of the message itself.
a. Messages provided through relatively lean communication channels, with little
opportunity for users to interact with the content of the message, tend to
encourage automatic processing.
b. Conversely, messages provided through richer communication channels, like a
long magazine article, tend to encourage more deliberative processing.
F. Choosing the Message
1. The most important implication of all this research is to match your persuasive
message to the type of processing your audience is likely to use.
a. When the audience is not especially interested in a persuasive message topic,
when they are poorly informed, when they are low in need for cognition, and
when information is transmitted through relatively lean channels, they’ll be more
likely to use automatic processing.
b. In these cases, use messages that are more emotion-laden and associate positive
images with your preferred outcome.
c. On the other hand, when the audience is interested in a topic, when they are high
in need for cognition, or when the information is transmitted through rich
channels, then it is a better idea to focus on rational arguments and evidence to
make your case.
VII. Barriers to Effective Communication
A. Filtering
1. Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so it will be seen as
more favorable by the receiver. For example, telling the boss what he/she wants to
hear.
2. The more levels in an organization’s structure, the more opportunities there are for
filtering. Being reluctant to give bad news, or trying to please one’s boss distorts
upward communications.
B. Selective Perception
1. Receivers in their communication process selectively see and hear based on their
needs, motivations, experience, background, and other personal characteristics.
2. Receivers project their interests and expectations into communications as they decode
them.
C. Information Overload
1. When the information we have to work with exceeds our processing capacity, the
result is information overload.
2. The result is they tend to select out, ignore, pass over, or forget information. Or they
may put it aside until the overload situation is over. The result is lost information and
less effective communication.
3. Employees must balance the need for constant communication with their own
personal need for breaks from work, or they risk burnout from being on call 24 hours
a day.
D. Emotions
1. How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how he or she
interprets it. Extreme emotions are likely to hinder effective communication.
2. During those times we are most likely to disregard objective thinking and substitute
emotions for judgments.
E. Language
1. Words mean different things to different people.
2. Age and context are two of the biggest factors that influence such differences.
a. If we knew how each of us modified the language, we could minimize
communication difficulties, but we usually don’t know.
b. Senders tend to assume the words and terms they use mean the same to the
receiver as to them.
F. Silence
1. It’s easy to ignore silence or lack of communication, precisely because it is defined by
the absence of information.
2. Research suggests silence and withholding communication are both common and
problematic.
a. One survey found that more than 85 percent of managers reported remaining
silent about at least one issue of significant concern.
b. Employee silence means managers lack information about ongoing operational
problems.
c. And silence regarding discrimination, harassment, corruption, and misconduct
means top management cannot take action to eliminate this behavior.
G. Communication Apprehension
1. An estimated 5 to 20 percent of the population suffers from communication
apprehension, or social anxiety.
a. They experience undue tension or anxiety in oral and/or written communication.
b. They may find it difficult to talk with others face-to-face or on the telephone.
2. Oral-communication apprehensives avoid situations, such as teaching, for which oral
communication is a dominant requirement.
a. But almost all jobs require some oral communication.
b. Of greater concern is evidence that high oral-communication apprehensives
distort the communication demands of their jobs in order to minimize the need for
communication.
c. Be aware that some people severely limit their oral communication and
rationalize their actions by telling themselves communicating isn’t necessary for
them to do their job effectively.
H. Lying
1. The final barrier to effective communication is outright misrepresentation of
information, or lying.
2. People differ in their definition of what constitutes a lie.
a. While the definition of a lie will continue to befuddle both ethicists and social
scientists, there is no denying the prevalence of lying.
The average person reported telling one to two lies per day, with some