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CHAPTER 9:
Understanding Group and Team Performance
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, students will be able to:
1. Describe types of groups and teams, differences between groups and teams,
concerns that confront real-life groups and teams, and when groups and
teams should be avoided.
TEACHING OUTLINE
I. Groups and Teams Defined
A. Communicating in Small Groups
1. A Group Consists of a Small Number of People
2. A Group Has a Common Purpose
3. Group Members Feel a Sense of Belonging
4. Group Members Exert Influence on Others in the Group
B. Communicating in Teams
1. Teams Develop Clearly Defined Responsibilities for Team Members
2. Teams Have Clearly Defined Rules for Team Operation
3. Teams Develop Clear Goals
4. Teams Develop a Way of Coordinating Their Efforts
C. When Not to Collaborate in Groups and Teams
1. When the group or team has limited time.
2. When an expert already has the answer.
3. When the information is available from other research sources.
4. When the group or team is entrenched in unmanageable conflict.
D. Working in Real Groups and Teams
4. Balancing Roles
B. Rules
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C. Norms
1. Norms and Rules
2. Sources of Norms
3. Enforcing Norms
D. Status
E. Power
1. Legitimate Power
2. Referent Power
3. Expert Power
4. Reward Power
5. Coercive Power
F. Cohesiveness
A. Orientation
B. Conflict
C. Emergence
D. Reinforcement
E. The Process Nature of Group Phases
CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTION SETS
How many of you have ever been involved in a group project for class or
work?
• Why are so many corporations switching over to group work?
• What do you think the advantages are?
• Are groups productive? Should they be outlawed by law?
• How many of you enjoyed the groups you were involved in? Really
• Ok, how many of you have ever been involved in a group that seemed to
go on and on forever with no ending point in sight
• How many of you have ever been involved in a group that was so
Your book distinguishes a team from a group, how do you distinguish
these?
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• How is a group of people eating at a breakfast bar different from a team?
Are they a small number of people? Do they have a common goal? Yes.
Do they have a sense of cohesion?
• Are there well-defined roles?
• So can we even say the breakfast group is even a group?
• Are all groups teams? Are all teams groups? What’s the difference?
into a debate.
What are the various kinds of groups?
What is a primary group?
• Do families only count?
How many of you have ever been involved in a study group?
• Was it successful? Make a mental note and divide the positive from the
negative.
• For those of you who had a negative experience, what was the problem?
Why didn’t it work?
• For those of you who had a positive experience, what did you do to make
it a success?
What is a therapy group?
• The book mentions groups like Alcoholics Anonymous and Over-Eaters
Anonymous. Would you include other kinds of groups?
• So can a therapy group be organized around things other than
obsessions?
• Grief counseling, stress management, etc.?
What is a problem-solving group?
• Where do you find these?
• How is a problem solving group different than a therapy group? (Problem
solving goes to social/organizational problems and therapy works on
individual.)
Have any of you ever participated in a focus group?
• Is a focus group a group or a team?
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• How do you see them as being different?
• What value does a focus group have for a marketer? Politician?
• Is it ethical to float ideas by various groups until you find a way to make an
unpopular idea popular?
What are social groups?
• Do social groups have to have a formal organization or can it just be a
group of friends?
• Look at the list of groups, what functions or forms of groups will a family
perform?
• What categories will a “gang” perform?
• Can groups accomplish more than one of the categories?
What do the authors mean by group dynamics?
• Will each group create a unique climate or dynamic?
• So do groups create subcultures?
What are roles? (Not the cinnamon variety.)
• Are you comfortable with the idea that you may play various roles in a
group?
What are task roles?
(Roles that get the job done.)
• Let’s look at a car. What are some things you have to have in a car to
make it go?
• If you don’t have gas, will it go?
• What about spark plugs?
• So is the same true of groups, if we don’t have certain task roles, will the
group “go”?
What are some things in a car that make it comfortable?
• Can you drive the car without an air conditioner?
• Will it still go without a radio?
• Do you enjoy the experience as much? Why not?
• So is this analogous to social roles?
What are things that make driving a car unpleasant?
• So if a car doesn’t have an air conditioner or is constantly breaking down,
do you enjoy driving it?
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• Can a car be fixed? What does it take? (Money)
• Can a group be fixed? What does it take? (Time and patience)
• Should you just simply throw people out of a group who create problems?
Why not?
What are norms?
• We’ve talked about norms before, so what do you see as formal norms
established in a group?
• Do all groups establish formal norms?
• What are examples of formal norms established in a family?
• What are informal norms?
How do you distinguish status and power?
• Can a person have high status, but relatively low power? How?
• Can a person have low status, but high power? How?
Let’s deal with the power bases. What is legitimate power?
• So, who in this classroom has legitimate power over what we are doing?
• What gives me the power? (The authority of the college/university and a
mixture of the other bases)
• Does that mean I’m the only one who holds the ability to influence?
What is expert power?
• Let’s say that a person is an expert on an issue, but is not well liked. Will a
group still follow their suggestions? Why or why not?
• Have you ever been in a group where this conflict occurred? Can you tell
us about it?
What is reward power?
• How important is this?
• Is it ethical to use a carrot-and-stick tactic?
What is coercive power?
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• Can a person punish us without having legitimate power to exercise the
punishment?
• What happens when a person uses the threat of coercive power, but does
not follow through?
• Is coercive power ethical?
• Where do you cross the line?
• When does coercive power become harassment?
What does cohesiveness mean?
• How many of you have heard the statement that, “A chain is only as
strong as its weakest link”? What does that mean?
• In a team, how important is that concept?
• Relate the idea to family. How important is it for a family to have meals
together?
What do you make of the interaction patterns?
• How do interaction patterns relate to power within a group?
• What kind of interaction pattern occurs in class when I’m lecturing?
• What kind of interaction pattern occurs when you are socializing with
friends?
• Do you prefer a particular pattern, or are they situationally driven?
What kinds of feelings do you have when you first join a group?
• Think back to your first day in your current job. How did you feel? Why?
What caused the discomfort? How long did it last?
• Is this similar to joining a new group or team?
• Does the feeling of discomfort change whether you are involved in a
problem/solving group, social group, or other type of group?
• Can you just skip the primary tension, or do you just have to deal with it?
The second stage is conflict, can you relate to this?
• Have any of you who have been involved in a lot of group work, ever been
involved in a group where there was an early play for power and
leadership?
• What was the tension like? How did the group respond?
How do you know when a group has moved into the emergence stage?
• Would you suspect that interaction patterns might change at this point?
How so?
• What kind of leadership might you expect to emerge?
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• What would happen to feelings of cohesiveness?
How does a group reinforce itself?
• What kind of messages might it generate when the group is successful?
• What kind of messages might be generated when they are not
successful?
Monochronic or Polychronic?
• Do you come from a more polychronic or monochronic cultural
perspective?
• How do you know?
JOURNAL QUESTIONS
1. Think of two different groups with which you have been involved. One should
be a general group and the other a team. What differences did you note?
How did the two groups differ with regard to group roles, cohesiveness,
2. Reflect on various groups with which you have been involved in the past.
Under each of the six categories provided by the author, list groups in which
you have participated: primary, study, therapy, problem solving, focus, and
social. Were there some categories you omitted? Why? Were there some
categories for which you had more than one? In what groups do you
participate the most? Based on your findings, do you enjoy groups or tend to
avoid them?
4. In another group meeting, perhaps one of the dysfunctional ones your
instructor set up, watch for individual roles that might occur. Identify one
person who plays one or more of the dysfunctional roles identified in the text.
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members respond to this person? If you could say something to this person,
what would you say?
5. Look at a primary or social group in which you are involved, and try to
observe the norms the next time you are with that group. Some examples
might include a family dinner, party with friends, a book club, or dance group.
Identify the formal norms and informal norms in play. What happens when
someone violates one of the norms? Are there obvious sanctions given by
other group members? Did you sanction the group member? How? Based
on your observations, relate the idea of norms to politeness, etiquette, and
illegal activities. At what point does an action require outside intervention?
6. Evaluate a person who you feel exerts a great deal of influence over you.
The person could be a parent, boss, friend, coworker, professor, member of
improving group cohesion. What suggestions could you make that might
improve the group climate? Analyze what it would take to accomplish this.
Would it be practical to implement these plans?
8. Create an interaction pattern chart and analyze a group outside of your class.
Chart the interaction that occurs and analyze whether it is an all-channel,
wheel, or chain network. What does the chart reveal about leadership? Does
the chart reveal the emergence of a clique or group deviate? What does it
reveal about leadership and cohesion within the group? How might you use
this kind of tool in the future to analyze group interaction?
9. Analyze a group you are involved with outside of class that is clearly in one of
the four stages described in the text. Identify the group and describe what
kind of group it is. Is it in the orientation, conflict, emergence, or
reinforcement stage? How much history do group members have with one
ACTIVITIES
Activity 9.1: Who’s Got the Power?
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Find a place on or off campus (such as a busy shopping mall) and observe pairs
or trios of people interacting. As you observe, try to determine who in the pair/trio
appears to exhibit the more/most power. Once you determine this issue, try to
determine why that person seems to have more power AND what type of power
s/he has and is exhibiting. Finally, reflect on your own interactions with people
who have more or less power than you do. How do you interact with those
people and how do they interact with you?
Activity 9.2: Who’s in the Clique?
During the next week or so, as you work with or have opportunities to observe
various groups, try to determine who in the group(s) may have formed cliques
Assignment 9.1: Group Assignment
Once the list is completed, use your knowledge of various campus problems and
policies to eliminate inappropriate topics. Inappropriate topics are those that are
presented as propositions or resolutions rather than as policy concerns. Also,
extraordinarily sensitive issues that might result in problems for students should
be eliminated. With the rest of the topics on the board, allow students to choose
three topics that they would want to spend some time working on. Tell students
they may vote for any three issues. Identify each topic and poll the audience to
find the top five. You will want to create 3 to 4 groups of 5 to 7 members each;
based on your class enrollment and the number of groups your schedule can
accommodate, whittle the list down to only 3 or 4 topics. Under each topic,
number one to five (or seven) to match the number of students in your class. Tell
students to sign up for their topics. Once students have signed up for their topic,
give them the assignment page.
Although the assignment page is fairly explicit, I have found that the following
suggestions tend to help the group projects. Tell students that for the duration of
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should exchange telephone numbers and/or e-mail addresses. Give a small
amount of class time so groups can do this. I have also found that it is very
important that groups accomplish the first part of the agenda in class. Without
supervision, students will often generate a question of value or fact as opposed
to a question of policy. Even when questions of policy are raised, it is common
for students not to apply the rigor necessary to define significant terms. A good
way of monitoring this is to tell students that Roman Numeral I will be required at
the next class meeting.
Assignment 9.2: Small Group Discussion, Campus Proposal
Upon completing this assignment, students will be able to:
1. Gain practical experience in a problem-solving group.
2. Apply the steps of the reflective thinking process.
3. Generate original research through interviews and surveys.
4. Apply skills in negotiating effective group process.
5. Identify how norms, roles, group cohesion, and interaction affect group
processes.
investigate a campus problem. Your group is to analyze the problem and set
forward a proposal that will resolve issues identified in the status quo. To
accomplish this task, each group member is to conduct a fact finding interview
with a campus expert connected to the problem. As an example, if you were to
look at campus security, you would want to interview at least one representative
from security, administration, students who have been victims of campus crime,
various organizations, alumni, etc. Transcripts of interviews should be included
in a final appendix of your proposal. In addition, each group will be expected to
prepare at least one survey to sample the effected population’s perception of the
problem. To use security as an issue, you might put together a survey designed
to measure how safe students feel on campus. In addition to these sources,
groups are each expected to gather at least ten published sources on their topic.
Sources may include the campus newspaper along with university or college
publications such as catalogs, pamphlets, and other publications. Students are
encouraged to consult Chronicle of Higher Education and other academic
sources to track national trends of their problem.
Include the following in your proposal:
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I. Define and limit the problem
A. State the question of policy
B. Define significant terms
C. Limit the problem
1. Specifically state areas of consideration
2. Specifically state areas beyond consideration
II. Define the status quo
A. What is the current situation?
1. What specific incidents can be identified?
2. How widespread is the problem?
3. What are the current procedures in play to deal with the problem?
4. How are these procedures followed?
5. What university or college policies affect the problem?
B. Who is harmed by the problem?
1. How is the college/university hurt by the problem?
2. How are the afflicted people hurt?
3. What are the current financial costs?
4. What are the potential costs?
5. Left alone, will the problem increase, decrease, or remain the same?
6. Who benefits from the problem?
C. What causes the problem?
1. When was the problem first noticed?
2. Look to procedures. What is the process and is it adequate?
3. Look at personnel. Are there enough people to deal with the situation
and are they properly trained?
D. Miscellaneous factual information
1. Consider all relevant information not addressed above.
2. Questions will vary according to the topic.
III. Establish Criteria
A. What things must a good solution do?
B. How will a good solution be implemented?
C. How will the group measure long-term success?
IV. Brainstorming
V. Select an appropriate solution.
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A. Filter your brainstorming through the criteria and identify the solutions that
pass.
B. Identify the solution or solutions you feel will have a direct bearing on the
problem.
C. If no solution filters through, you must report “Nothing.” From a policy
perspective, inaction is action.
VI. Proposal
A. Articulate a clear request for a particular action.
B. Conclude with an appropriate appeal to emotion.
The appendix of your group outline should include the following:
• A sample of the survey used by students to gather information and a
results page to identify the outcome of each question.
• Bibliography of all published sources.
Students will be graded on the following criteria:
Assignment 9.3: Small Group Interaction
This assignment is designed to help students:
1. Distinguish a group from a team.
2. Gain practical experience in a problem solving team.
3. Distinguish between task and social roles.
4. Recognize the role norms, status, power, cohesiveness and interaction
patterns have on group communication.
5. Identify four stages of group development.
On ______, all students will be asked to join a finance team. Each team is to
assume they will have $10,000.00 to invest. The group is to elect a leader who
should have some background in financial management. Students who are
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should be given strong consideration for leadership. Each group will have two
weeks to make as much money as possible on the stock market. Money must be
diversified and groups should avoid being overly conservative. The groups are in
competition with one another to see which group will out-perform the others.
Groups will be given 10 to 15 minutes at the beginning of each class to make
adjustments in their portfolios. No unilateral decisions can be made, and all
changes must be made on the basis of consensus. During the first meeting,
students will need to choose their initial stocks and find a way of tracking them.
During each class meeting one student will play the role of observer and keep an
interaction chart. This responsibility will change so that a student will play the
role of observer only once. Interaction charts must be dated and copies must be
made for each member of the group so for use in their individual papers.
Address the following:
1. How did your involvement with this group differ from other groups with which
you have been involved? Did you consider this a team or a group? Why?
What specific roles were assigned to group members and how did this affect
the team’s interaction and performance?
2. What roles did individuals play? What task roles did group members
assume? What roles did you assume? Did interaction change as certain
people were asked to be the observer? What social roles did others perform?
What social roles did you perform? Did you notice any of the individual roles
emerge? If so, how did the group deal with this person?
3. What norms emerged in the group? Which of these were formal norms and
which were informal? Did you notice any change in group members’
4. How was status and power distributed within the group? What members of
the group had status? What members had power? Identify individual
members within the group and describe what power bases they were able to
use. Were these effective? Did you notice any power plays among group
members? What power base(s) were you able to employ?
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5. How did interaction patterns change throughout the group process? Did you
maintain the same pattern from beginning to end? Did your charts reveal a
6. What stages of group interaction did your group move through? Were you
able to clearly identify all the stages? Did your group get “stuck” in one of the
7. What kind of agenda did the group follow? Was it closer to the reflective
thinking process, or did you create a different kind of agenda? Describe.
Was it successful or do you feel there needed to be a different format?
8. In a final paragraph, evaluate the overall success of your group. Do you feel
you were an effective or ineffective group? What elements of the process
Assignment 9.4: Group Analysis – The Information Sharing Group
This assignment is designed to help students:
1. Understand the complexities of small group communication.
2. Analyze a specific phenomena associated with mass communication or
technology.
3. Recognize additional avenues for communication research.
4. Prepare and deliver a formal briefing.
Procedure: All students will be assigned to a 5 to 7 member fact finding team that
will investigate a concern in the area of mass communication or communication
technology. The teams will consider a value-oriented issue and will present a 20
to 30 minute PowerPoint presentation briefing to the class covering their area of
A. Introduction
B. Discussion of the status quo
C. Ethical implications of the question
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D. Pro argument of the question
E. Con argument of the question
F. A research proposal that would help to answer the question.
Each section should be fully supported with research documentation. To this
end, each student assigned to the group will be responsible for a minimum of
three sources in addition to the text. Students may consider interviews of
qualified experts and online or in-person surveys.
Group members should prepare a detailed outline of their briefing that should
include a bibliography of sources. Please use a recognized bibliographic format
such as APA, MLA, or Chicago style.
Grades will be determined according to the following criteria:
Students will have to use time outside of class to complete the project.
Assignment 9.5: Peer Evaluation
Distribute the “Peer Evaluation” form and have the students complete it with the
corresponding assignments.
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Peer Evaluation Form
Take a moment to reflect on the group project you recently completed in class. Rate
your group members on the following scales. Be critical in your evaluation, but fair. If
you score everyone in your group with a 4 or a 5, you will not be rewarding the people
who exceeded expectations, but you will be rewarding students who attended few
meetings or participated very little in the final outcome. On the left hand side, write the
names of your group members (omitting yourself). Rate your fellow group members on
the following scales where:
1 = very poor; 2 = poor; 3 = average; 4 = above average; and 5 = clearly outstanding.
Your name____________________________
Rank your team members so that 1 refers to least valuable member of the group and 6
is the most valuable member of your team.
1._________________________ Contributed least
2._________________________