978-0133753820 Chapter 11

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CHAPTER 11:

Developing Your Speech

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, students will be able to:

1. List and explain the components of the audience-centered public speaking

model.

2. Apply specific strategies for becoming a more confident speaker.

3. Select and narrow a topic for a speech.

4. Write an audience-centered specific-purpose statement for a speech.

5. Develop a central idea for a speech.

6. Generate main ideas from a central idea.

7. Describe four potential sources and seven types of supporting material for a

speech, and use each type effectively.

TEACHING OUTLINE

I. Overviewing the Public Speaking Process

II. Building Your Confidence

A. Understand Public Speaking Anxiety

B. Know How to Develop a Speech

C. Be Prepared

D. Focus on Your Audience

E. Focus on Your Message

F. Give Yourself a Mental Pep Talk

III. Selecting and Narrowing Your Topic

A. Who Is the Audience?

B. What Is the Occasion?

C. What Are My Interests and Experiences?

D. Conducting Silent Brainstorming

E. Scanning Web Directories and Web Pages

F. Listening and Reading for Topic Ideas

IV. Identifying Your Purpose

A. General Purpose

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B. Specific Purpose

V. Developing Your Central Idea

A. An Audience-Centered Idea

B. A Single Topic

C. A Complete Declarative Sentence

D. Direct, Specific Language

VI. Generating Main Ideas

A. Does the Central Idea Have Logical Divisions?

B. Can You Think of Several Reasons the Central Idea Is True?

C. Can You Support the Central Idea with a Series of Steps or a

Chronological Sequence?

VII. Gathering Supporting Material

A. Sources of Supporting Material

1. Yourself

2. The Internet

3. Online Databases

4. Traditional Library Holdings

B. Types of Supporting Material

1. Illustrations

2. Descriptions

3. Explanations

4. Definitions

5. Analogies

6. Statistics

CLASS DISCUSSION QUESTION SETS

Why should students be asked to study presentational speaking?

• How many presentations does an average professional give in a year? (2

to 5.)

• Can presentational speaking be taught?

What does it mean to make a speech audience-centered?

• Why should a speaker do this?

• Isn’t it the audience’s JOB to listen?

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• How do you make a speech audience-centered?

Is it natural to be nervous before giving a speech or do only certain

speakers experience this?

• What causes the anxiety?

• No, what hormone causes it?

• Adrenaline trigger what is called “the fight or flight mechanism.” Is

speaking a fighting situation?

• Why do you need extra energy?

• What does adrenaline do for the body?

• So what are things you can do before your speech? (Preparation and

practice)

• How important is it to look good on the day you speak?

• How important is self-talk?

• Can we prepare ourselves to fail?

• Should you try to practice in the room in which you’ll present the speech?

Why?

• How can you use breathing and tension relaxation exercises before you

speak? (See activities.)

• These are things you do before the speech; what should you do during the

speech?

• How can you use breathing to regulate yourself?

• While delivering your speech, on what should you concentrate?

• If all else fails, should you seek professional counseling?

How can you come up with a good speech topic?

• What kinds of things do you need to know about your audience?

• What kinds of things do you need to know about the occasion?

• What kinds of things do you need to know about yourself?

• How do you discover these things?

What can a speaker do in a speech?

• In other words, what are the three different kinds of presentations you can

give?

• What are examples of informative presentations?

• What are examples of persuasive presentations?

• What are examples of presentations to entertain?

• Can a person learn how to do all of these? (Yes, it’s all technique.)

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• What if the purpose of the speech is to entertain?

What do the authors mean by an audience-centered specific purpose?

• Why would it be important to know what you want to accomplish?

• Since we don’t really test audiences, why is it important to measure the

results?

• Look at the front of this chapter. What do you notice about the objectives?

What is the difference between a central idea and a thesis statement?

• Do they sound different? Some instructors may ask students to signal a

central idea.

• How do you use the specific purpose to structure a central idea?

• How do you know you have a good central theme?

• What are the four criteria mentioned by the authors?

How do you create main points from a central idea?

• First of all, how many main points should you have in a 3 to 5 minute

speech? (2 to 5.)

• How about if you have a whole hour to talk? (2 to 5. You might want to

talk about information overload.

• Logical reasoning.

• Reasons it might be true.

• Chronology of unexplained encounters.

• Why do you want all of this done before you go to the library?

How do you discover sources of information when you are researching a

speech?

• Can you count yourself as a source when you speak?

• What is the difference between the right to speak and the right to be

heard?

• In the United States, who has the right to speak? On any subject?

• Now, who has the right to be heard?

• Think about a court case; who should be heard?

• So given this, must you have a B.A. in a subject to speak on it? (No)

• What do you need to be able to speak on a subject?

• Now if you can count yourself, what about friends who have experience

with the subject?

• Is the Internet a credible source for information? (Sometimes)

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• How do you find information on the Internet? (The two best search

engines I have discovered are C4.com and askjeeves.com. See Internet

activities)

• How should you evaluate Internet sources?

• What if you can’t find the author of the Website?

• Has the Web made the library obsolete?

• What advantages can the library offer?

• The library assignment will help to further extend this point. See activities.

What do the authors mean by supporting material?

• Is all evidence used in a speech factual?

• What are illustrations? Why would a speaker use them?

• What is a hypothetical illustration? Is it ethical to use them?

• Can you present a hypothetical example without telling your audience it is

hypothetical?

• What obligations does a speaker have?

• What are descriptions?

• How can a speaker enhance descriptions?

• How does an explanation differ from illustrations or descriptions?

• When would a speaker need to use explanations?

• What is a definition?

• What does it mean to define something by classification?

• How is this different than an operational definition?

• Can a speaker provide a personal definition of an idea?

• What is the difference between a literal analogy and a figurative analogy?

• What are statistics?

• Are all numbers statistics or only some numbers?

• Which numbers count? (Measurements)

• Do we understand numbers? On a clear night, how many stars do you

see with the naked eye? (Class will say millions, but astronomers estimate

the number to be 2,000 to 5,000.)

• Can we really contemplate 1,000,000 anything?

• What is an oral citation? Do you only use it with statistics?

• What other forms of evidence need to be cited?

• Is opinion an acceptable form of evidence?

• Won’t opinion turn an informative speech persuasive?

• How do you keep this from happening? Cite the source. There is a

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• What is expert testimony?

• Who is an expert?

• What is lay testimony?

• Why is it considered somewhat less credible than expert testimony?

• Are quotations good to use?

• Is it ok to lift a quotation out of context?

• What ethical obligations do you owe a living author?

• Do you have the same obligations to a dead author?

JOURNAL QUESTIONS

1. Take a moment and reflect on your future career goals. Analyze how you will

use presentational speaking skills in your future. Building on the skills of

problem solving, conduct a force field analysis with regard to presenting a

speech. What are your driving skills that would make you a good public

speaker? What are the restraining forces you feel would be obstacles? By

studying presentational speaking, will you be able to overcome the restraining

forces?

2. Reflect on the nine components of audience-centered presentational

speaking. Using the model, think about all areas of communication, written

3. Think of your own reactions to presentational speaking. What kind of anxiety

reaction do you have? Do you feel it is rational or irrational? Think about the

suggestions offered by the authors? Will they help? What specific things can

you do to prepare yourself for the extra energy you will feel? Make a specific

plan and include the following: How will you practice? What will you wear?

What will you focus on during the speech?

4. Apply the authors’ suggestions for choosing a speech. Set a timer for five

minutes and begin brainstorming. If you notice your mind wandering, focus it

by asking yourself a specific question like: what would I do with a day all to

myself? List all the ideas that come to you. At the end of five minutes, go

back through your list and eliminate any topics that you feel would not be

appropriate to the audience, the occasion, yourself. What topics are left?

5. Create a plan for the topic you decided on in the previous journal entry.

Begin by creating a general purpose. Likely, for the first speech it will be to

inform. Then create a specific purpose. And lastly create a central idea for

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approaches, two informative approaches, and two entertainment approaches.

Note: Even a topic like death can be funny.

6. Write your final plan with the general purpose, specific purpose and central

idea. Now, generate three different ways you could approach your topic and

divide the main points. Even if your topic has a clear chronological structure,

simply try to create the other two orders as it will force you to consider

different perspectives.

7. Create a research plan. In thinking about your topic, think about your

expertise on the topic.

8. This will be an ongoing journal entry. Take your journal with you to the library

and as you search the Internet. Make note of all relevant information you

may find. Classify the information as to whether it is an illustration, analogy,

definition, etc. Make note of where you find information so you can make

appropriate oral citations in your speech.

ACTIVITIES

Activity 11.1: Speech Workshop

Divide your class into four even groups. Ask each group to establish a space in

the four corners of the room. You will place a chair in the middle of the room.

One at a time, students will stand and deliver their speech to their group at the

same time as the other speakers are speaking to their groups. Ideally there will

be four presentations going at one time. When the presentations are done, each

member of the group must identify one thing they felt the speaker did well and

one thing the speaker could do to improve their speech. If a student is

unprepared for the day, ask them to deliver an impromptu speech on their topic

to their group. When all students have had a chance to deliver their

presentations and received and offered criticism, the activity is over.

Follow-up points include:

• How did they manage anxiety?

• What role does rehearsal have in making effective presentations?

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To be effective, the workshop should be done close to the performance day.

Activity 11.2: Supporting Material

Divide the class into six groups. Each group is to work on one of the forms of

evidence. As an example, one group will work with analogies, another on

definitions and another on statistics. For each group, give one or two starting

points, but then ask them to develop even more. After 20 minutes, ask the

groups to stop their individual work and share their findings with the rest of the

class. The following examples may be used to get the teams started:

Illustrations group

Create a vivid example, story, or anecdote for academic cheating,

infatuation, and groupthink. When you are finished with these, try to create

three more on different topics. The illustrations may be hypothetical

provided you follow the guidelines discussed in the book.

Explanations group

Explain how to make a peanut butter sandwich, why attendance is

important, and how to choose a major. Create explanations for three other

issues.

Definitions group

Analogies group

Create analogies for love, death, and college. The analogies may be literal

or figurative. Create three additional analogies.

Statistics group

Interpret the following statistics in a way the class can easily understand.

o Six million Jews were killed in Nazi Germany

o A conservative estimate suggests that 1 in 20 college students

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Activity 11.3: Differences between Writing and Speaking

One of the most challenging things students must understand is that there are

very distinct differences between good writing and good speaking. While there

are similarities, students cannot approach a presentational speaking event the

same as they do a writing event. To help students see this, I usually draw a t–

chart with writing on one side and speaking on the other. I ask students to be the

experts in writing and tell me what makes a good paper. On the opposite side, I

place the components that are needed for presentational speaking.

The following chart is not meant to be exhaustive, but rather a jumping-off place

to generate ideas. Much of this is indebted to Chaim Perelman’s and Olbrecht

Tyteca’s contributions to the New Rhetoric.

Good Writing

Good Speaking

compound complex sentence

structure

simple, varied structure

elevated vocabulary

common vocabulary

smooth flowing transitions

abrupt and clear transitions

detail-oriented

better for broad ideas

emphasis on hard evidence

emphasis on soft evidence

principle mode logos

principle mode pathos

unlimited page length potential

limited time limits

universal/academic audience

particular/subjective audience

logical standards of evaluation

ethical standards of evaluation

Activity 11.4: Dealing with Anxiety…

Before the Speech:

1. Eliminate uncertainty.

2. Practice, Practice, Practice

3. Try to plan one rehearsal in the room to check out the space

4. Plan your outfit—Fernando and the hide away; “Sometimes it is better to

look marvelous . . .”

During the Speech:

1. Control the event.

2. Take your time and arrange your materials.

3. Look at the audience before you speak.

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7. Don’t lock hands on the podium or in your pockets. Let them help with the

energy.

8. Establish eye contact with individuals; not the audience.

Don’t:

Finally:

Place the event into perspective. This is 4 to 6 minutes out of your LIFE. You

have been through more hell and heartache waiting in a dentist’s chair, telling

your parents about the car, breaking up with the one that should have never

been, or trying to explain to your boss what a good idea it was at the time.

Activity 11.5: Finding a Topic in Vogue

Have students bring in at least three different magazines and/or newspapers—

current issues are recommended. Organize the periodicals that students bring to

class on a table at the front of the room. Instruct students to come up to the table

and grab one periodical that they did not bring to class. Then, randomly divide

students into small groups of three. Explain that each group should work together

to skim the selected periodicals and identify 5 issues that could make good

speech topics. Groups should brainstorm 5 speech topics for each of their

periodicals—a total of 15 topics per group. This process should take

approximately 15 minutes. After time has expired, have each group identify and

share with the rest of the class the 3 best speech topics that they discovered

during this activity. To debrief, ask whether this activity helped students think of

potential topics for their upcoming speech assignment. Discuss other methods

(questions and strategies) that students can use to discover speech topics.

Activity 11.6: Presenting…

Have each class member select a person of some fame whom they have

admired for a long time for the qualities that s/he possesses or possessed. This

person does not have to be alive, and may be real or fictitious.

Class members should be reminded that the task is to shine the spotlight on the

guest rather than on themselves. Each speech can then be evaluated relative to

the guides in Chapter Eleven of the textbook.

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ASSIGNMENTS

Assignment 11.1: Informative Speech Assignment

Performance days: ________________________

Time Limit: 4 to 6 minutes would be recommended for a first speech.

Assignment: Students should select a topic of interest they feel qualified to speak

on before the class. The topic should be of worth and students will be asked to

support their speech with four qualified sources. Sources may be drawn from the

Internet, library, and personal experience.

Procedure: Students should construct an outline of their speech. Note that an

outline is not a manuscript of the speech itself, but a skeleton of the ideas and

materials that will be presented. Use the following as a guide.

Plan

Introduction

Body

I. First main point:

(First Necessary Transition)

II. Second main point:

(Second Necessary Transition)

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Conclusion

Note that this is simply a model and all presentations will have numerous

variations. Some speakers may have only two main points while others will have

five, and the sub-structuring will be determined by the evidence presented.

Nevertheless, all presentations will conform to this direct sequence

organization.

With the outline complete, students should transfer key ideas and phrases to 3 X

5 or 4 X 6 note cards. Students will be allowed one note card for each main point

presented plus two additional cards to be used for the introduction and

conclusion. In other words, for a three-point speech, students may use five

cards. A four-point speech would have six cards.

With these steps complete, students should set aside at least two hours to talk

the speech out. Using your note cards, they should practice the speech until

they feel fully confident about how it will be presented.

Presentations will be graded on the following criteria:

1. Choice of topic

2. Quality of outline

3. Clarity of ideas

All students are expected to incorporate an extemporaneous style of delivery.

Any speech that is read can receive no higher than a “C.”

Please note that this is an informative speech. If at any time you feel you are

attempting to reinforce or change audience attitudes or that you are advocating a

specific action, you are probably falling into the realm of persuasion. Persuasive

presentations will receive a letter-grade deduction.

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The following assignments should be considered daily work. Although these

assignments do add to the volume of paperwork, I like to use them as it reminds

students that presentational speaking is a process rather than a product. It also

helps at the end of the year to have this kind of record as it makes borderline

decision grades easier to make. Normally these assignments are graded with a

check, check plus, or check minus. Assignments are announced orally and no

make-ups are allowed.

Assignment 11.2: Choosing a Topic

Before talking about the process of topic selection, I ask students to think about a

topic and come into class with one or two topics on which they would want to

speak. That day, I ask them to take out a clean sheet of paper and, at the top,

write their name. On the first line, each student should write a sentence that

describes the topic they want to present. If they have a second topic, they are to

skip to the middle of the page and write a second sentence that describes it. The

point is to leave space in between so I can respond. I also tell students that if

they do not have a topic, they should be honest and simply state that. My

comment to them is that they need to complete the brainstorming activity; these

sheets receive check minuses. The follow-up of this is the idea of invention and

how we come up with topics. We also talk about the idea that speakers are

usually asked to speak on a given topic because of their expertise.

Assignment 11.3: Creating a Plan

For the next class period, ask students to come to class with a plan. The plan

should include the following: general purpose, specific purpose, central idea,

and division of main points. Follow-up on this assignment is the research

process and how important it is to go in with a narrow focus and knowledge of

what is necessary.

Assignment 11.4: Research Assignment

Ask students to find the following citations; only ask for the citations and not the

actual sources or you will be overwhelmed with material:

1. The call number of a book housed in your college or university on the

subject.

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5. Two reference works you could consult, not including encyclopedias.

6. Two Internet citations.

7. Two experiences of your own or people you could interview to find more

information