978-0078112768 Chapter 4 Solution Manual Part 1

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1.1 Chapter Summary

The first section of this chapter discusses the analysis of work process within a given work unit.

Having provided an understanding of the broader context of jobs, the chapter discusses the need

for and usefulness of both job analysis and the techniques for performing job analysis. Finally,

the chapter concludes by presenting the various approaches to job design to provide managers

with an understanding of the costs and benefits of emphasizing different characteristics of jobs

when designing or redesigning them.

1.2 Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Analyze an organization’s structure and work-flow process, identifying the output,

activities, and inputs in the production of a product or service.

2. Understand the importance of job analysis in strategic and human resource management.

3. Choose the right job-analysis technique for a variety of human resource activities.

4. Identify the tasks performed and the skills required in a given job.

5. Understand the different approaches to job design.

6. Comprehend the trade-offs among the various approaches to designing jobs.

1.3 Extended Chapter Outline

Note: Key terms appear in boldface and are listed in the “Chapter Vocabulary” section.

1.4 Opening Vignette:

1.5 Changes in Organizational Structure and Workflow Promote GM Revival

GM faced some tough times and tougher decisions in the summer of 2009. Attempting to

recover from bankruptcy, GM needed to alter its organizational structure to reduce redundancy,

waste, and intramural feuds and its workflow if it had hopes of survival. The result was a

reduction in the number of supported platforms from 30 to 14 and the number of models from 86

to 49. The financial results were equally astounding.

Discussion Question

1. Explain the resurgence of manufacturing in the United States, and then, offer some ways that

Human Resource Managers can play a significant role in continuing and perhaps even

accelerating this resurgence.

The reason that manufacturing is making a comeback in the United States is because U.S.

manufacturing companies are making good use of their existing resources, particularly

There are many ways that HR professionals can play a part in this comeback. HR

professionals can help to identify talent within the company, and they can offer and support

I. Introduction—Designing the work to be performed is one of the first tasks of

strategy implementation discussed in Chapter 2. The way a firm competes can have a

profound impact on the way tasks are organized, and the way the tasks are designed may

provide the company with a competitive advantage. Also, the way jobs are designed can,

in fact, affect company work-unit performance. There is no “one best way” to design

jobs and structure organizations. The organization needs to create a fit between its

environment, its competitive strategy and philosophy on the one hand, with its job and

organizational design on the other. Job analysis and job design are interrelated.

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.1

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2 II. Work-Flow Analysis and Organization Structure (Workflow analysis, analyzing work

outputs, processes, and inputs; see text Figure 4.1)

–work-flow design – the process of analyzing the tasks necessary for the

production of a product or service, prior to allocating and assigning these

tasks to a particular job category or person.

–organization structure – the relatively stable and formal network of vertical

and horizontal interconnections among jobs that constitute the organization.

A. Work-flow Analysis

The workflow process is useful because it provides a means for the managers to

understand all the tasks required to produce a high-quality product as well as the

skills necessary to perform those tasks.

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2.1

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2.2 B. Analyzing Work Outputs

1. Work outputs are products of, or services provided by, a work unit, and

Examples: A jet engine blade, a forklift or a football jersey.

2. Once outputs have been identified, it is necessary to specify the standards

3. ProMES (productivity measurement and evaluation system) is a

C. Analyzing Work Processes

1. Work processes are the activities that members of a work unit engage into

produce a given output.

Example: Work processes needed to produce an automobile include

assembly, painting, and so forth.

Every process consists of operating procedures that specify how things

should be done to develop the product or service.

Competing Through Technology:

Robots Attack Okun’s Law

Okun’s Law, named after economist Arthur Okun, states that there is a robust and steady

relationship between productivity, on the one hand, and unemployment rates on the other hand.

In general, the formula expressed in this law suggests that every 3% gain in output should reduce

the unemployment rate by 1%. Recent unemployment data indicate that this trend is no longer

accurate. One potential reason – the introduction of robots into the mix.

Discussion Question

1. Can you think of other common jobs that exist today that would have been inconceivable to your

parents or grandparents when they were your age? Are these new lines of work relatively high

paying jobs or low paying jobs??

Student responses may vary, but look for the demonstration that students have an

understanding of the types of work robots may be involved in as well as the new types of

D. Analyzing Work Inputs

1. Work inputs are the “ingredients” that go into the work processes and can

be broken down into three categories (text Figure 4.1).

a. Raw materials consist of the materials, data, and information that will

be converted into the work unit’s products.

III. Organization structure – provides a cross-sectional overview of the static relationship

between individuals and units that create the outputs.

A. Two of the most important dimensions of structure are centralization and

departmentation.

1. Centralization is the degree to which authority resides at the top of the

organizational chart.

2. Departmentalization refers to the degree to which work units are grouped

based upon functional similarity or similarity of workflow.

B. Two types of Structural Configuration of organizational structure tend to emerge

in organizations:

1. A functional structure (See Fig. 4.2 in the text) employs a functional

2. A divisional structure (see Figures 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 in the text) employs a

workflow departmentation and low levels of centralization. Because of

Competing Through Globalization:

Is it Time to Slow Down Fast Fashion?

Low cost, high speed, and flexibility – the primary means of achieving competitive advantage

today are illustrated well in this case of “fast fashion”. However, some believe that the only way

to achieve these ends in this industry is though exploitation of workers in Third-World labor

markets. Plant managers in these emerging economies often attempt to take short-cuts in safety

measures when rapid changes in production demands are made in order to maintain profitability.

Nike recently publically claimed that when these factories are asked to make such changes in

style and production runs midstream that it results in one of the largest contributors to overtime

and accidents.

Discussion Question

1. How does one balance the potential for backlash against Western firms that outsource work to

countries that exploit workers against the potential cost savings associated with outsourcing to

these countries?

Student responses may vary, but look for an indication that they are thinking in terms of

2. In underdeveloped countries that have extremely high rates of unemployment, how does one

balance the need to provide workers better working conditions against the potential for losing all

of those jobs to workers in more developed countries?

Student responses may vary, but look for an indication that they are thinking about making

positive changes to the economies in these countries – not only economic change, but change in

terms of recognizing the need to value human lives. As the Commerce Minister in Bangladesh

indicated, having an entire country branded as not caring about workers does ot help anyone in

the long run.

C. Structure and the Nature of Jobs

1. Jobs in functional structures need to be narrow, highly specialized, and

people need to work alone.

2. Jobs in divisional structures need to be more holistic, team-based structure

with greater decision making authority.

IV. Job analysis – the process of getting detailed information about jobs.

A. The Importance of Job Analysis

1. Job analysis has been called the building block of everything that the

personnel department does.

2. Some of the human resource activities that use job-analysis information

includes selection, performance appraisal, training and development, job

evaluation, career planning, work redesign, and human resource planning.

–Work redesign – a firm will seek to redesign work to make it more

efficient or effective.

–Human resource planning – planners analyze an organization’s human

resource needs in a dynamic environment and develop activities that

enable the firm to adapt to change.

–Selection – identifying the most qualified applicants for employment.

–Training – trainer identifies the tasks performed in the job.

–Performance appraisal – getting information about how well each

employee is performing.

–Career planning – matching an individual’s skills and aspirations with

opportunities that are or may become available in the organization.

–Job evaluation – assessing the relative dollar value of each job to the

organization to set up internally equitable pay structures.

B. The Importance of Job Analysis to Line Managers

1. Managers must have detailed information about all the jobs in their work

group to understand the work-flow process.

2. Managers need to understand the job requirements to make intelligent

hiring decisions.

3. Since the manager is responsible for ensuring that each individual is

performing his or her job satisfactorily, the manager must clearly

understand the tasks required in every job.

C. Job Analysis Information

1. A job description is a list of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities (TDRs)

that the job entails. (Text Table 4.1)

2. A job specification is a list of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other

characteristics (KSAOs) that an individual must have to perform the job.

Example: Job specifications for an employment assistant would include:

(1) a four-year college degree with major course work in human resources

or an equivalent combination of experience, education, and training; (2)

considerable knowledge of principles of employee selection and

assignment of personnel; (3) the ability to express ideas clearly in written

and oral communication; (4) the ability to independently plan and organize

one’s own activities.

Ethics in Action:

Running Right While Running Coal

Coal company Massey Energy has the worst worker fatality record of any coal company in the

United States. This is partly related to an organizational culture that became accepting of

wrongdoing and forsaking worker safety for lower costs and higher profits. New leadership

through being acquired may change this situation. The company’s new owner, Alpha Natural

Resources has vowed to run the company in a responsible way and to lead by example.

Discussion Question

1. In what ways, other than higher than average turnover, does having an unsavory ethical

reputation harm an organization’s competitive advantage?

Student responses may vary, but look for an indication that they are thinking in terms of a

3. Sources of Job Analysis Information

a. In general, it will be useful for the manager to go to the job

b. Managers should ask others familiar with the job, such as the

c. Research has shown greater agreement between supervisors and

subordinates when rating general job duties than when rating

d. Research is somewhat inconclusive about the relationship between the

performance level of the job analyst and the job-analysis

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2.3

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2.4 D. Job Analysis Methods

1. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)

a. The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a standardized

job-analysis questionnaire containing 194 items representing work

behaviors, work conditions, or job characteristics that are

generalizable across a wide variety of jobs.

b. The 194 items are organized into six sections, and the job analyst

is asked to rate each item on six scales. A computer program

generates a job report based on the ratings. The six sections are:

– information input

– mental processes

– work output

– relationships with other persons

– job context

–other characteristics

c. Research has indicated that the PAQ measures 13 overall

dimensions (text Table 4.2). Knowing the dimension scores

provides some guidance regarding the types of abilities that are

necessary to perform the job.

d. One of the main problems with the PAQ is that it requires the

reading level of a college graduate to complete the questionnaire.

2. The Occupational Information Network (O*NET)

a. The U.S. Department of Labor replaced the Dictionary of

Occupational Titles in 1998 with O*NET because jobs in the new

economy were so qualitatively different from jobs in the old

economy, and the DOT no longer served its purpose.

b. Instead of relying on fixed job titles and narrow task descriptions,

the O*NET uses a common language that generalizes across jobs

to describe the abilities, work styles, work activities, and work

context required for various occupations that are more broadly

defined.

c. Although it is still being developed, the O*NET is already being

used by many employers and employment agencies. It is also

designed to help job seekers.

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2.5 E. Dynamic Elements of Job Analysis

Although we tend to view jobs as static and stable, in fact, jobs tend to change and

evolve over time. The job analysis process must also detect changes in the nature

of jobs. Advances in technology have made it hard to keep up with some of the

major changes in jobs, and automation has led to the elimination of certain jobs or

the offshoring of tasks or even shifting the tasks from the worker to the customer.

V. Job design is the process of defining the way work will be performed and the tasks that

will be required in a given job. Job redesign refers to changing the tasks or the way

work is performed in an existing job. Jobs can also be characterized on different

dimensions of job design (Table 4.3 in the text).

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2.6 A. Mechanistic Approach

1. The mechanistic approach to job design has its roots in classical industrial

engineering and focuses on designing jobs around the concepts of task

For more information on O*NET, visit http://online.onetcenter.org/

specialization, skill simplification, and repetition.

2. Scientific management, one of the earliest mechanistic approaches, sought

to identify the one best way to perform the job through the use of

time-and-motion studies.

3. The scientific management approach was built upon in later years and

resulted in a mechanistic approach that calls for the job to be designed

very simply. The organization reduces its need for high-ability

individuals, and workers are easily replaceable (a new employee can be

trained to perform the job quickly and inexpensively).

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2.7

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2.8

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2.9 B. Motivational Approach

1. The motivational approach to job design focuses on the job characteristics

that affect the psychological meaning and motivational potential, and it

views attitudinal variables as the most important outcomes of job design.

2. The prescriptions of the motivational approach focus on increasing job

complexity through job enlargement, job enrichment, and the construction

of jobs around sociotechnical systems.

3. A model of how job design affects employee reaction is the “Job

Characteristics Model”.

a. According to this model, jobs can be described in terms of five

characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance,

autonomy, and feedback.

b. These five job characteristics determine the motivating potential of

a job by affecting three psychological states: experienced

meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results.

c. When the core job characteristics are high, individuals will have a

high level of internal work motivation, higher quantity and quality

of work, and higher levels of job satisfaction.

d. Much of the work on job enlargement, job enrichment, and

self-managing work teams has its roots in the motivational

approach to job design (Table 4.3 in the text). However, most of

the research shows these interventions increase employee

satisfaction and performance quality, but not necessarily increase

quantity of performance.

Example: Alston & Bird of Atlanta have designed the paralegal job

so that it entails a great deal of autonomy and clear communication

channels between attorneys and paralegals. The result: In an

industry where turnover among paralegals averages 20 percent per

year, turnover at Alston & Bird averages 7 percent per year. The

firm also receives 15,000 applications for the 200 positions

available per year.

1.5.1.1.1.1.1.2.10 C. Biological Approach

1. The biological approach to job design comes primarily from the sciences

of biomechanics (the study of body movements), and it is usually referred

to as ergonomics, or the concern with examining the interface between

individuals’ physiological characteristics and the physical work

environment. The goal of this approach is to minimize the physical strain

on the worker by structuring the physical work environment around the

way the body works.

Example: At Toyota’s high-tech Tahara No. 4 line, new electric vehicle

carriers were installed to minimize stress on the workers’ bodies. They

adjust a car’s height at every workstation. Toyota reports a major

reduction in turnover during the plant’s first year of operation.

2. The biological approach focuses on outcomes such as physical fatigue,

aches and pains, and health complaints.

3. The biological approach has been applied in redesigning equipment to

reduce the physical demands so women can perform the jobs and to reduce

occupational illnesses such as carpal tunnel syndrome.

1.5.1.1.2

1.5.1.1.3 D. Perceptual-Motor Approach

1. The perceptual-motor approach to job design has its roots in the

human-factors literature and focuses on human mental capabilities and

limitations. The goal is to design jobs in a way that ensures that they do

not exceed people’s mental capabilities.

2. This approach generally tries to improve reliability, safety, and user

reactions by designing jobs in a way that reduces the information

processing requirements of the job.

3. This approach, similar to the mechanistic approach, generally has the

effect of decreasing the job’s cognitive demands.

4. Recent changes in technological capabilities hold the promise of helping

to reduce job demands and errors, but in some cases, these developments

have actually made the problem worse. This is referred to as “absence

presence”

Example: An example of absence presence is talking on a cell phone

while driving a car.

E. Trade-offs among Different Approaches for Job Design

1. One research study found job incumbents expressed higher satisfaction

with jobs scoring highly on motivational approach. However, the

motivational and mechanistic approaches were negatively related,

suggesting that designing jobs to maximize efficiency is likely to result in

a lower motivational component to those jobs.

2. Jobs redesigned to increase the motivating potential result in higher costs

in terms of ability requirements, training, and compensation.

3. In designing jobs, it is important to understand the trade-offs inherent in

focusing on one particular approach to job design.