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CHAPTER 2
Communication, Culture, and Work
Resource Guide
The opening page of each chapter in Communicating at Work lists desired learning outcomes. The
Resource Guide will assist you in locating activities and resources from the text and Instructor Manual
that are relevant to each objective.
Chapter Objectives
Resources
Define culture and co-culture.
Key terms: culture, co-cultures
In the text:
Activities: 1,4,7
Culture at Work: Organizations are Cultures, Too
Instructor’s Manual online:
Discussion Launchers: 1-4
Classroom Activities: 1
Identify ways in which race or ethnicity, class,
generation, region and disability can influence
business communication.
Key terms: baby boomers, generation X,
millennials
In the text:
Activities: 3
Case Study: A $48 Million Dollar
Misunderstanding
Technology Tip: Generational Preferences in
Communication Technology
Instructor’s Manual online:
Discussion Launchers: 5,6
Classroom Activities: 2,3
Video Activities: 1-3
Describe two key intercultural differences in
formality, social customs, dress, time,
tolerance for conflict, and gender roles.
Key terms: monochronic time orientation,
polychronic time orientation
In the text:
Activities: 5
Self-Assessment:
Diagnosing Your Cultural Intelligence
Instructor’s Manual online:
Classroom Activities: 4,5
Explain how the hidden dimensions of culture
(context, individualism/collectivism, power
distance, uncertainty avoidance,
masculinity/femininity, long/short-term
orientations) affect communication in a
culturally diverse workforce.
Key terms: collectivist cultures, feminine culture,
high-context culture, individualistic cultures, long-
term orientation, low-context culture, masculine
culture, power distance, short-term orientation,
In the text:
Activities: 2
Instructor’s Manual online:
Discussion Launchers: 7-9
Classroom Activities: 6-9
Written Application Exercises: 1-3
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social orientation, task orientation, uncertainty
avoidance
Describe additional factors of ethical
communication.
In the text:
Activities: 6
Ethical Challenge: Asking Hard Questions about
Ethical Behavior
Instructor’s Manual online:
Personal Reflection for Journaling
Classroom Activities: 10
Apply the guidelines in “Communicating
across Diversity” to describe six specific ways
you and others can communicate more
effectively in your workplace.
Key term: ethnocentrism
In the text:
Activities: 8
Instructor’s Manual online:
Discussion Launchers: 10-12
Classroom Activities: 11-13
Written Application Exercises: 4
Video Activities: 4
Describe the cultural challenges in a specific
organization or career and identify specific
approaches to communicate most effectively
within this culture.
Key term: organizational culture
In the text:
Activities: 5,6
Career Tip: Difference as Advantage
Culture at Work: Gender as a Co-Culture
Instructor’s Manual online:
Discussion Launchers: 13, 14
Classroom Activities: 14,15
Written Application Exercises: 5
Video Activities: 5
About Chapter 2
Chapter 2 expands the Chapter 1 idea of communication as a process by considering cultural context.
Culture has both national and international dimensions. Each workplace, whatever its national setting,
has a unique organizational culture. Understanding the various dimensions of cultures and co-cultures in a
diverse society can enhance career success. Co-cultural differences include race, ethnicity, social class,
generation, geographical region, and disabilities.
This chapter presents new information that reinforces ideas introduced in Chapter 1. The cultural
differences discussed here are easily associated with psychological noise that, in any communication, can
prevent effective encoding or decoding. Inherent in the discussion of cultural differences is the fact that
communication can be unintentional. Some behaviors that may “mean” nothing in one culture take on
great meaning in another. Nonverbal factors such as eye contact, expectations of silence, time, dress, and
the nature of gifts provide examples of how one may unintentionally communicate. Cultural examples
effectively demonstrate unintentional nonverbal affronts and the importance of understanding various
cultural norms.
Cultures of organizations vary tremendously and organizational culture has a strong impact on
communication and satisfaction at work. Thus, it is important to investigate an organization’s culture
before being hired. Just as communication is dynamic and ever-changing, so are cultures, including
organizational cultures.
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Since it is impossible to know everything about a particular culture, it is helpful to minimally
understand broad categories of differences in order to be a more astute observer of other cultures. It is
imperative to understand high- and low-context cultures, individualist and collectivist cultures, power
distances, feminine and masculine cultures, differing attitudes toward uncertainty, varying levels of
comfort with conflict and disclosure, and different attitudes about time. This knowledge assists persons in
business environments to monitor and adapt their behaviors more effectively in various cultural contexts.
Students are challenged to examine their own intercultural attitudes and competence with a discussion
of ethical dilemmas encountered in multicultural communication. Chapter 2 concludes by challenging
students to examine their own intercultural attitudes and assumptions. Guidelines for improving
intercultural competence are introduces.
Personal Reflection for Individual Journaling Assignment
Describe an experience in which you interacted with a person from a culture or co-culture that
differs from yours. What types of “noise” (which you read about in Chapter 1) were present in
the communication process? Explain how you were or were not able to communicate. Apply the
guidelines presented in this chapter for communicating across diversity to suggest ways for
improving future communication with people from different cultural contexts.
Discussion Launchers
1. Why does your text use the word “co–culture” instead of “subculture”? Is this an important
distinction? Why or why not?
2. When you hear the word “diversity,” what thoughts, feelings, words, and images come to mind?
Where do these ideas come from? How do these ideas affect our communication with people
from other cultures and co-cultures?
3. Discuss the authors’ claim that “cultures are invisible to the people who are used to inhabiting
them.” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Provide specific examples to support your
point.
4. Identify the benefits various cultures bring to the workplace. Give specific examples.
5. Have you ever experienced what it’s like to be part of a non-dominant culture? Which norms
from the dominant culture did you notice? Which norms affected you most?
6. Besides the suggestions in the text, what additional attitudes and behaviors are useful for effective
communication in the workplace between persons with and without disabilities?
7. In your own words, compare high-context versus low-context cultures. Think of other phrases
you could use to describe this contrast. Identify examples within mainstream U.S. culture that
illustrate low-context behaviors. Then, identify some examples of high-context behaviors. Which
set of examples was easier to think of? Why?
8. Think of workplace situations when a long-term orientation might be helpful; think of other
workplace situations when a short-term orientation might be helpful. How do these situations
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differ? If you felt your work team should adopt a longer-term view of a challenge, how might
you try to alter their attitudes?
9. Deborah Tannen wrote, “Communication is always a matter of balancing conflicting needs for
involvement and independence.” Discuss that statement with regard to high- and low-context
cultures and two other dimensions of cultural diversity that you choose.
10. If a friend asked you for advice about interacting with people of diverse backgrounds in the
workplace, what would you tell her? Base your answer on the guidelines for Communicating
across Diversity found in Chapter 2 of your text.
11. What else would you like to know about effective intercultural communication and/or doing
business internationally that you don’t see in the text? Use the end-of-chapter Web and print
references in the text to answer your questions.
12. What experiences have you had interacting with people of varied cultural backgrounds? What
opportunities did you find? What challenges did you encounter? What strategies did you use to
manage those challenges?
13. Predict ways that organizations react to greater diversity within their own organizations. How do
differing reactions affect each organization’s culture?
14. What values of other cultures might enhance organizational cultures? Customer service? Sales
and marketing? Health care? (Consider, for instance, how increased numbers of women in the
workforce have changed some organizational cultures—job sharing, flexible hours, family leave,
childcare on site.) Provide specific examples to support your suggestions, and explain how these
values would enhance organizational culture.
Classroom Activities
1. Understanding Benefits of Cultural Diversity
Objective: This activity should increase students’ understanding of the benefits of cultural diversity and
common attitudinal barriers toward recognizing the benefits of diversity.
Procedure: Allow students a few moments to review the opening section of Chapter 2. Then assign
students to groups of four or five. Ask each group to identify at least five reasons why diversity is
sometimes considered to be unwelcome in the workplace. Encourage students to consider international
cultures and co-cultures, such as persons with handicaps and persons with various sexual orientations.
Next, ask students to identify at least five potential benefits of cultural diversity, integrating material from
the text, their own experiences, and other classes they have taken. Finally, ask students to suggest ways to
overcome unreceptive attitudes toward cultural diversity.
Class Discussion: For each of the three topics, use a round-robin procedure to allow groups to share the
concepts they identified. After hearing from each group, invite the class to respond as a whole.
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2. Nonverbal Behaviors in Various Cultures
Objective: This activity reinforces students’ awareness of nonverbal differences in intercultural
communication.
Procedure: Ask students to explain (or demonstrate, if appropriate) examples of nonverbal
communication behaviors from various cultures and co-cultures. If your students have had limited
exposure to various cultures, you may need to be prepared with your own examples (consult the Web
Resources section below). For each behavior, identify several possible meanings.
Class Discussion: This is a good time to introduce the idea that nonverbal communication is ambiguous.
Emphasize that even within one culture, nonverbals can often have various meanings. Discuss how
students can respond when they witness nonverbal behaviors that appear rude or confusing.
3. Communicating with Persons with Disabilities
Objective: This activity presents students with guidelines for effective communication with cultures of
disability.
Procedure: Provide students with copies of the Department of Labor’s guidelines for effective
communication with persons with disabilities, available at
http://www.dol.gov/odep/pubs/fact/comucate.htm. Divide students into several small groups. Assign
each group one or two of the guidelines from the text for interacting with people who have disabilities.
Instruct each group to develop two role plays for each guideline: one that illustrates appropriate
communication and one that illustrates inappropriate communication. Instruct students to prepare to
present their role plays in front of the class, and then to explain to the class the essence of the guideline
they have illustrated.
Class Discussion: Have groups perform their role plays in front of the class. Next, have the class identify
which guideline was illustrated and which example illustrates appropriate interaction. Allow the class to
question the presenting group about the guidelines. After all groups have completed their role plays, ask
class members what they learned, what surprised them, and what they already knew. Ask students to
share times when they have been temporarily disabled (a broken foot, for example) and whether they
agree with these guidelines, based on that short-term experience. If the class includes a disable member
who is willing to share their perspective, invite them to do so.
4. Awareness of Other Cultures
Objective: The purpose of this activity is to increase student awareness of other cultures and to classify
general information into categories described in this chapter.
Procedure: Obtain a set of descriptions of various cultural groups. Possible internet sources are
http://www.culturgrams.com/ and http://www.bliss.army.mil/services/eo/eor.htm (scroll to the bottom of
this page for articles about the Arab-American experience; Asian-American experience; Black-American
experience; Extremist groups; and the more). Additional print resources are described at the end of this
chapter. Divide the class into groups, and give each group a description of cultural norms typical to one
culture.
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Class Discussion: Class discussion could focus on the student’s ability to identify characteristics for the
various cultural factors.
• What characteristics do you find that indicate directness or indirectness, collectivist or
individualist, high- or low-power distance across different cultures?
• How do these characteristics affect the way individuals communicate?
• In what way does egocentrism affect the ways we respond to these various characteristics?
5. Case Studies of Gender and Racial Discrimination
Objective: This activity provides students an opportunity to put into practice the guidelines for ethical
and intercultural communication they’ve read about in the text.
Procedure: Refer to the document titled “Racism and Sexism” available at
http://www.bliss.army.mil/services/eo/eor.htm (scroll to the bottom of the web page to find the link to the
Racism and Sexism article). Point out to students the various factors that lead to racist and sexist
attitudes, behaviors that demonstrate racism and sexism, and social problems created by racism and
sexism. Then, emphasize strategies for combating racism and sexism, linking these strategies to the
guidelines in the text.
Next, divide the class into groups, and assign each group a case study to consider. The group should
diagnose the problem and suggest solutions.
Class Discussion: Have each group briefly explain their case study to the class and recommend strategies
to improve the communication of the characters in the case. As time allows, elicit questions, comments,
and additional suggestions from the class.
6. Understanding Fundamental Dimensions of Cultural Diversity
Objective: The purpose of this activity is to reinforce students’ knowledge of characteristics of various
dimensions of cultural diversity and identify countries that represent each dimension.
Procedure: Distribute three 3” x 3” post-it notes to each student. While completing the first part of this
exercise, students should refer to the section from Chapter 2 titled “Fundamental Dimensions of Cultural
Diversity.” Ask students to select any two dimensions of diversity. Instruct them to print one
distinguishing characteristic for each dimension on one side of their first two post-it notes. On the third
sticky note they will print the name of one of the countries from Table 2-3. While students are preparing
their post-its, write the names of the following dimensions on the board: high-context, low-context,
individualistic, collectivist, high-power distance, low-power distance, avoid uncertainty, tolerate
uncertainty, task orientation, social orientation, short-term orientation, long-term orientation.
When students are ready, ask them to exchange their post-its with other students. Each student will then
walk to the board and post her or his note under the appropriate category. Students will remain standing
next to one of the dimensions (2-3 students will represent each dimension). Ask the representatives of
each dimension to read aloud the post-it notes. If the note has been placed in the wrong category, they
will move it to the correct category. If classmates disagree with the placement, have them explain where
they would place the note. Work your way around the room until all notes have been correctly placed.
(You can increase the effectiveness of this activity by assigning each student during the prior class one
dimension to become an “expert” about.)
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Class Discussion: After completing the activity, conduct a brief follow-up discussion. Ask whether any
of the categories still seem confusing. You can also elicit examples to illustrate each dimension.
7. High and Low Context
Objective: The purpose of this activity is to increase student understanding of the differences in high- and
low-context cultures.
Procedure: Use the examples below to help students understand high- and low-context cultures. (You
might want to display this information as a PowerPoint slide.) For example, there are differences in the
amount of talk preferred within various cultures. While research shows that men talk more than women in
mixed-sex dyads, women may want to talk about a relationship more than men do. In terms of direct and
indirect speech, there are regional differences within the U.S., with New Yorkers being noted for more
directness and Minnesotans for more indirectness. For additional examples, point out how indirect
someone offering a bribe or checking out whether someone might consider dating would be compared to
how verbal and direct a lawyer spelling out a contract would be. Many Americans find silence while
eating dinner unbearable and uncomfortable, and they expend much effort trying to minimize the silence.
Other cultures appreciate and desire silence at dinner.
Low Context
High Context
More talk
Less talk
Direct speech
Indirect speech
Verbal clues
Nonverbal and environmental clues
Expectation – anything important will be talked
about
Expectation – you will observe and learn
Class Discussion: To help students identify with the appreciation of silence, you might ask them to point
out the times when they desire silence.
• In what way has context affected the type of interaction you have had already today?
• Identify times that you desire silence and times when you find it uncomfortable.
• How difficult is it to enhance our comfort level when faced with these situations?
• Do we force individuals from other cultures to accept our context levels? Why or why not?
8. Directness/Indirectness
Objective: The purpose of this activity is to encourage students to identify specific and concrete ways in
which persons communicate directly or indirectly in a variety of contexts. While the text does an effective
job of providing students with a number of examples of the types of communication used from each of
these perspectives, this exercise helps to facilitate class discussion around diversity contexts within an
organizational setting. In addition, this activity allows students to discuss options that each individual has
along a continuum of directness or indirectness and to assess reasons for choosing more or less directness.
Procedure: Using the handout at the end of this section titled “What Would You Do?” have the students
read the situations listed and check the behavior that comes closest to what they believe they would do in
the particular situation. After everyone is finished, have the students get into their groups and discuss their
responses. As a group, have them tally their responses to come up with a group average.
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Class Discussion: Point out to the students that more A responses indicate more indirectness and more B
responses indicate more directness. The following questions could be used to initiate a class discussion:
• When do you consider directness to be a virtue?
• When is politeness more important than directness?
• When is directness more important than polite indirectness?
• Is politeness a societal judgment? Does politeness ever constitute lying?
• Can you be direct and polite at the same time?
• Are you more or less direct with your boss than with your coworkers? Why?
• Are you most direct in downward, horizontal, or upward communication? Why?
9. Who am I? Cultural, Social, and Foundational Values*
Objective: Gives students a chance to consider the sources of their own values, and to compare them to
other classmates’ values.
Procedure: Using the handout at the end of this section titled “Who am I? Cultural, Social, and
Foundational Values?” ask students to assess their own values. Then allow them an opportunity to
discuss and compare their values in groups. Encourage students to find examples in the text that relate to
their values.
Class Discussion: After completing the activity, conduct a brief follow-up discussion. Review the text’s
discussion of various cultural orientations. Elicit ways in which varying values might impact
performance in the workplace.
• Adapted from an activity submitted by Kathleen Hom, Salt Lake Community College
10. Diversity and Ethical Issues
Objective: After completing this activity, students should be able to explain and apply strategies that
promote improved intercultural relations.
Procedure: Divide the class into six teams. Assign each team one of the categories of attitudes and
behaviors found in Table 2-5. The task of each team is to produce a three- to five-minute workshop in
which they will describe their assigned concept to the class, provide examples and illustrations, and
explain the significance of the concept to intercultural communication.
Class Discussion: Allow five to seven minutes for each team to conduct its workshop, followed by a
question and answer session involving the entire class.
11. Assumptions that Promote or Block Constructive Intercultural Relations
Objective: After completing this activity, students should be able to identify attitudes and behaviors that
are constructive or destructive in promoting effective intercultural communication.
Procedure: Divide the class into six teams. Assign each team one of the categories of attitudes or
behaviors found in Table 2-6. The task of each team is to produce a three- to five-minute workshop in
which they will describe their assigned concept to the class, provide examples and illustrations, and
explain the significance of the concept to intercultural communication. After each group presents, you
may need to fill in information they have missed or clarify information that wasn’t presented clearly.
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Class Discussion: Wrap up the workshop session by asking the class questions such as the following:
• Which of these behaviors or attitudes have you observed in school or the workplace?
• Which attitudes or behaviors do you find to be most helpful?
• Which do they find hardest to change in yourself?
12. Learning to Communicate with Persons from Unfamiliar Cultures*
Objective: This exercise sensitizes students to how it might feel to become immersed in a culture
they’re not familiar with. It is difficult to communicate because we may not understand the language, the
customs, and the norms of that particular culture. We do not understand much of what is going on in that
culture, yet we must learn how to communicate effectively.
Procedure: Prepare students for this activity through the following steps:
• Divide students into groups of 6 to 10 students. If possible, groups should be equal in
number.
• Prepare a small slip of paper for each student with a number on it (the numbers used should
be 1 through the number of students in the group).
• Give each student one number. Their assignment is to put themselves in number order
without talking and without sharing the exact number nonverbally (e.g., do not look at the
numbers, write out the numbers, hold up an appropriate number of fingers, or tap the
appropriate number of times). To accomplish this, students will need to be open to new,
alternative ways of communicating.
• When students are sure they have placed themselves in the correct order, they should let you
know. You can then check to see if they succeeded.
Class Discussion: This exercise usually takes about 10 minutes to complete. As soon as most groups have
assembled themselves in order, reassemble the class and discuss what students learned from this
assignment. Focus on ways that students communicated with one another. Which methods seemed most
successful at engendering mutual understanding? Why? Which attitudes were most helpful? Why? You
can extend this conversation so students reflect on the strategies persons from various cultures and co–
cultures (including disability cultures) might use to communicate with one another.
*This activity was contributed by Tamra Phillips, Salt Lake Community College.
13. Communicating Across Diversity
Objective: Students will apply principles for improving communication in a diverse work environment.
Procedure: This could be a major project that takes some time. It requires at least some outside research
from web sites, guidebooks, or personal interviews with person from the target culture.
Divide the class into groups. Each group can choose a cultural group to focus on. Each group will imagine
they have been tasked with creating a diversity training program for a call center staff based in (your
hometown). Assume that the call staff all represent mainstream Anglo cultural values, and have done very
little traveling beyond their home town. The staff will be answering calls from clients who represent the
culture the group has chosen. The overall goal of the training program is to help the agents become more
culturally literate.
The training program should achieve the following goals:
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• Overcoming ethnocentrism: Help the agents appreciate other cultures and their landscapes by
introducing them to famous or beautiful places from the cultural group’s home country (e.g.,
showing photos of beautiful scenery).
• Identify differing communication codes: Identify phrases or words the staff might inadvertently
use that could be inappropriate when translated. Include examples of proper phone etiquette from
other cultures as well, such as cultures where it would be considered rude and a sign of poor
listening if you are not constantly saying “yeah” in response to the client’s speaking.
• Identify any other differences in customs or behavior that would help the agents set the callers at
ease and feel respected.
Class Discussion: Allow each group five to ten minutes to present their training to the class. After the
presentations, bring the activity to a close by asking the class to identify
• two memorable items they learned from each presentation.
• similarities across all presentations.
14. Organizational Culture at Your College
Objective: After completing this activity, students should be able to identify characteristics of
organizational culture in an organization students are familiar with and part of.
Procedure: Have students form small groups to compile a description of the organizational culture at
their university or college. Instruct them to focus on the dimensions of organizational culture described in
the textbook. For each dimension, they should create a list of examples and explain the meanings the
examples hold for organizational members. After their lists are completed, have the group members
compare their lists.
Note: You can stimulate a great deal of discussion by providing videos or public relations brochures
produced by and about your school. These materials are rich sources of information regarding how the
organization views its culture.
Class Discussion: Class discussion could focus on the similarities in the group’s descriptions as well as
differences.
• How would you characterize the organizational culture?
• Why is there agreement on certain items?
• Why are there disagreements concerning the meanings of other items?
• What do these results tell us about the complexity of organizational cultures?
• What do they tell us about the source of the information?
• How do these findings illustrate the model of communication?
15. Values in Organizational Cultures
Objective: This activity introduces students to the variety of values espoused by various organizations
and the degree to which organizations achieve their espoused values.
Procedure: Ask students to brainstorm a list of popular slogans from businesses and other organizations.
You might want to ask students to bring magazines (many slogans appear in advertisements) and/or
company brochures to class.
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Class Discussion: You can encourage a comparison and critique of various slogans and cultures by
presenting some of the following questions:
• What does each slogan suggest about its organization’s culture?
• Can you find any recurring themes among organizational values?
• Which values would you be most comfortable working with?
• If your students have had personal experiences with any of the organizations, ask them
whether the organization enacts the values it espouses at all levels. (Do top management,
middle management, low-level employees, customers, and suppliers all experience the
organization’s values in the same way?)
• Is it possible for organizational members at various levels to experience the organization’s
culture in the same way? Why or why not? (Refer to the model of communication in your
explanations.)
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What Would You Do?
For each situation below, circle the letter of the response that comes closest to what you think
you would do or prefer.
1. If I ask someone to do me a favor and he can’t, I would prefer that
A. he at least say he’ll try or he’ll check; then later let me know if he can’t.
B. he say “no” right away instead of saying he’ll check his schedule and let me know.
2. If people come to my office to talk and I don’t have time, I would
A. talk to them anyway and hint at the fact that I had work to do.
B. not offer them a chair. I’d say, “I can’t talk now; I have to get this work done.”
3. If someone said she was inviting a few people from the office over for dinner and
asked you to come, and you really didn’t want to socialize with people from work,
would you say,
A. sorry, but I already have some plans for that night; I’ll see what I can do.
B. I prefer to keep my work and personal life separate. Thanks for the invitation, but I
don’t want to.
4. If your car was in the shop and you wanted a ride home with someone, would you
A. hint at the fact that you needed a ride?
B. come right out and ask people if they could give you a ride home?
5. A coworker asks your opinion on a project that you think is poorly done. Would you
say
A. I can see you worked hard on this; it must have been a lot of work?
B. it looks as though you still need to work on the formatting and the conclusions?
6. You are upset about the way your coworker, with whom you share a locked office,
runs out for coffee and leaves the door unlocked. Would you
A. not say anything and just hope she remembers to lock it, and make a point of locking
it when you step out?
B. address the issue with her promptly by saying you feel uneasy when you find the
office unlocked with no one around?
7. You and your coworker Sue worked together and contributed equally on a project.
At a staff meeting, your boss publicly commends Sue for her work on the project.
Would you
A. not say anything knowing that in time you may get recognition?
B. immediately write a memo or talk to your boss to let her know that the project was a
joint one?