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Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
14-1
CHAPTER FOURTEEN: Communicating in the Digital Age
LEARNING OJBECTIVES
See Slides 14-2, 14-3
When you finish studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the perceptual process model of communication, and describe the
barriers to effective communication.
• Specify two major impacts of social media that are changing the general
communication landscape.
• Contrast the communication styles of assertiveness, aggressiveness, and
nonassertiveness.
• Discuss the primary sources of nonverbal communication.
• Review the five dominant listening styles and 10 keys to effective listening.
• Describe how linguistic styles vary for women and men and what can be done to
improve everyone’s communication effectiveness.
• Discuss the formal and informal communication channels.
• Explain the contingency approach to media selection.
• Describe the Internet generation, and discuss the pros and cons of teleworking.
• Specify practical tips for more effective e-mail and cell phone etiquette, and
discuss policies for using social media Web sites in the workplace.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Chapter 14 defines communication and presents a process model of communication.
The various barriers to effective communication are described. This chapter discusses
communication competence. Elements of communication competence include
understanding assertive, aggressive and nonassertive communication styles, being
knowledgeable about the different forms of non-verbal communication, engaging in
active listening, and understanding how linguistic styles impact communication. Formal
and informal communication channels are described and factors impacting media
choice are discussed. Finally, this chapter explores how digital communication is
dramatically affecting many aspects of organizational behavior.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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Communication is defined as the exchange of information between a sender and a
receiver, and the inference of meaning between the individuals. Current views of
communication are based on a perceptual model of communication that depicts
communication as a process in which receivers create meaning within their own minds.
The following elements are a part of the perceptual process model: senders, receivers,
encoding, messages, medium, noise, decoding and feedback. The sender is the
person wanting to communicate information—the message. The receiver is the person,
group, or organization for whom the message is intended. Encoding translates mental
thoughts into a language that can be understood by others. People typically encode
using words, numbers, gestures, or nonverbal cues. The output of encoding is a
message. Messages can be communicated through different media including face-to-
face conversations and meetings, telephone calls, charts and graphs, and digital forms
of communication. Decoding is the receiver's version of encoding and consists of
translating aspects of a message into a form that can be interpreted.
Miscommunication can occur if the receiver's interpretation of a message differs from
that intended by the sender. Receivers act according to their own interpretations, not
the sender's. At the point where the receiver responds to a message, he or she
becomes a sender by providing feedback. Noise is anything that interferes with the
transmission and understanding of a message.
Anything that gets in the way of the accurate transmission and reception of a message
is a barrier to effective communication. Barriers to effective communication include
process, personal, physical, and semantic barriers. As illustrated in Table 14-1 every
element of the perceptual model of communication is a potential process barrier.
Personal barriers include: an inability to effectively communicate, the way people
process and interpret information, lack of interpersonal trust, stereotypes and
prejudices, egos, poor listening skills, our natural tendency to evaluate or judge a
sender’s message, nonverbal communication, and an inability to listen with
understanding. Listening with understanding occurs when a receiver can see the
expressed idea and attitude from the other person's point of view. Physical barriers to
communication include time-zone differences, telephone-line static, distance from
others, and office design. Semantic barriers are created by words because the words
used influence whether a message is interpreted as intended by the receiver. Semantic
barriers can be created by cultural differences and through the use of jargon, which
refers to language or terminology that is specific to a particular profession, group, or
company.
Organizational communication is being significantly altered by social media. Social
media provides immediate worldwide personal access to unfiltered information and
bottom-up empowerment. Managers cannot afford to ignore social media, which can
provide early warnings of internal problems and/or external issues.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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Communication competence is a performance-based index of an individual’s abilities to
effectively use communication behaviors in a given context. Three communication
styles are assertive, aggressive, and nonassertive. An assertive style is expressive and
self-enhancing, but does not take advantage of others, while an aggressive style is
similar but does take unfair advantage of others. A nonassertive style tends to be timid
and self-denying. Managers can improve their communication competence by trying to
be more assertive and less aggressive or nonassertive.
Nonverbal communication is any message sent or received outside of the written or
spoken word. Sources of nonverbal communication include body movements and
gestures, touching, facial expressions, and eye contact. Because of the prevalence of
nonverbal communication and its significant effect on organizational behavior, it is
important that managers become consciously aware of these sources of nonverbal
communication and to understand cultural differences in the meaning of nonverbal
communication.
Listening is the process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages. The five
dominant listening styles are appreciative, empathetic, comprehensive, discerning, and
evaluative. Good listeners: (1) capitalize on thought speed by staying with the speaker
and listening between the lines, (2) listen for ideas rather than facts, (3) identify areas of
interest between the speaker and listener, (4) judge content and not delivery, (5) do not
judge until the speaker has completed his or her message, (6) put energy and effort into
listening, (7) resist distractions, (8) listen to both favorable and unfavorable information,
(9) treat complex material as exercise for the mind, and (10) take notes when necessary
and use visual aids to enhance understanding.
Linguistic style refers to a person’s typical speaking pattern. Men and women generally
use different linguistic styles. Table 14-4 describes 10 gender-based communication
differences. Linguistic style may influence perceptions of confidence, competence, and
authority. Some experts recommend that men and women should learn to genderflex.
That is, they should be able to at least temporarily use communication behaviors typical
of the other gender. Others believe that everyone needs to become aware of how
linguistic styles work and how they influence our perceptions and judgments.
Formal communication channels follow the chain of command and include vertical,
horizontal, and external routes. Vertical communication involves the flow of information
up and down the organization. Upward communication involves communicating with
someone at a higher organizational level, while downward communication occurs when
someone at a higher level in the organization conveys information or a message
downward to one or more others. Horizontal communication flows within and between
employees working in different work units. External communication flows between
employees inside the organization and a variety of stakeholders outside the
organization.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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Informal communication channels do not follow the chain of command. Two commonly
used informal channels are the grapevine and management by walking around
(MBWA). The grapevine represents the unofficial communication system of the informal
organization and encompasses all types of communication media. The grapevine is
faster than formal channels, about 75% accurate, relied upon when people are
insecure, and not an isolated form of communication. Managers are encouraged to
monitor and influence the grapevine rather than wasting time trying to extinguish it.
MBWA involves managers walking around and informally talking to people from all
areas and levels. MBWA is an effective way to communicate because employees
prefer to get information directly from their manager.
Managers need to determine the appropriate media to use when communicating via the
various formal and informal channels of communication. Two factors should be
considered in this decision process: information richness and the complexity of the
problem/situation. Information richness is the capacity of a communication medium to
convey information and promote understanding. Information richness is determined by
feedback, channel, type of communication, and language source. The complexity of the
situation can range from low to high in complexity. Low-complexity situations are
routine, predictable, and managed by using objective or standard procedures, while
highly complex situations are ambiguous, unpredictable, hard to analyze, and often
emotionally laden. Effective communication occurs when the richness of the medium is
appropriately matched with the complexity of the situation. Figure 14-2 presents a
contingency model for selecting communication media. Managers should seek to avoid
the overload zone by using a medium too rich for a routine problem and avoid the
oversimplification zone by using a lean medium for complex problems.
The digital communication revolution is affecting organizational behavior, both positively
and negatively. Managers face the twin concerns of security and privacy. Prevention is
the key when it comes to protecting digital communication systems and Table 14-5
provides useful tips for prevention. The Net Generation (Net Gen) grew up with the
Internet as a central feature of their lives and their worldviews are transforming the
workplace. The eight norms of Net Gen profiled in Table 14-6 are freedom,
customization, scrutiny, integrity, collaboration, entertainment, speed, and innovation.
Telecommuting/ teleworking is doing work generally performed in the office at home or
in other convenient locations using advanced communication technologies.
Telecommuting/ teleworking can increase employee productivity, increase the
attractiveness of the employer, decrease operating costs, increase operationality during
a crisis, and contribute to green initiatives. The disadvantages of telecommuting/
teleworking are that they require self-discipline, they create an “out of sight, out of mind”
challenge, they result in professional isolation and they can create work-life balance
difficulties.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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The digital age can result in e-mail overkill. Table 14-7 provides some practical tips for
more effective email use. Problems created by pervasive cell phone usage range from
merely annoying, to unethical and illegal, to deadly. The cell phone etiquette tips
presented in Table 14-8 can make for a better digital-age. Companies need to have
clear policies for social media use in the workplace. Firms need to harness the benefits
of social media while respecting privacy rights and avoiding legal and ethical abuses by
employees. Table 14-9 provides guidelines which can be used to effectively harness
the power of social media.
LECTURE OUTLINE
I. Basic Dimensions of the Communication Process and Social Media Impacts
i) Communication Overview
(1) Communication: the exchange of information between a sender and a
receiver, and the inference (perception) of meaning between the
individuals involved. See Slide 14-4
(2) Managers who understand the communication process can analyze their
own communication patterns as well as design communication programs
that fit organizational needs.
ii) Perceptual Process Model of Communication See Slides 14-6, 14-
8, 14-9, 14-10
(1) Perceptual Process Model of Communication Overview
(a) Historically, the communication process was described in terms of a
conduit model that viewed communication as a pipeline in which
information is transferred from person to person, but presently the
assumptions of the conduit model are viewed as unrealistic.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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(b) Researchers have begun to examine communication as a form of
social information processing in which receivers interpret messages by
cognitively processing information.
(c) Perceptual model of communication: process in which receivers
create their own meaning.
(2) Sender, Message, and Receiver
(a) The sender is the person wanting to communicate information—the
message.
(b) The receiver is the person, group, or organization for whom the
message is intended.
(3) Encoding
(a) Encoding translates mental thoughts into a code or language that can
be understood by others.
(b) The output of encoding is the message.
(4) Selecting a Medium
(a) Managers can communicate through a variety of media including face-
to-face conversations, phone calls, charts and graphs, and many
digital forms.
(b) The appropriateness of a medium depends on many factors, including
the nature of the message, its intended purpose, the audience,
proximity to the audience, time constraints, and personal skills and
preferences.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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(c) All media have advantages and disadvantages and should be used in
different situations.
(5) Decoding and Creating Meaning
(a) Decoding occurs when receivers receive a message and it is the
process of interpreting and making sense of a message.
(b) The Real World/Real People: Navajo Language Became a WWII
Secret Weapon in an Odd Twist of History profiles the decoding
process.
(c) The perceptual model is based on the belief that a receiver gives
messages their meaning.
(d) Decoding and creating the meaning of a message are influenced by
cultural norms and values.
(6) Feedback
(a) Feedback occurs when the receiver expresses a reaction to the
sender’s message.
(7) Noise
(a) Noise: anything that interferes with the transmission and
understanding of the message.
(b) Noise includes speech impairments, illegible handwriting, inaccurate
statistics, poor hearing and eyesight, environmental noises, people
talking, and physical distance between sender and receiver.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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(c) Nonverbal communication and cross-cultural differences can be
sources of noise.
(d) Figure 14-1: Communication Process in Action summarizes the
elements of the perceptual communication process. See Slide
14-5
iii) Barriers to Effective Communication See Slide 14-12
(1) Communication Barriers Overview
(a) For communication to be effective, senders must accurately
communicate their intended message, and receivers must perceive
and interpret the message accurately.
(b) Anything that gets in the way of the accurate transmission and
reception of a message is a barrier to effective communication.
(c) Table 14-1: Potential Breakdowns in the Communication Process
Itself describes barriers that are part of the communication process
itself. See Slide 14-11
(2) Personal Barriers See Slides 14-13, 14-14
(a) Personal barriers represent any individual attributes that hinder
communication.
(b) Common personal barriers that foster miscommunication include:
(i) Variable skills in communicating effectively.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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(ii) Variations in how information is processed and interpreted.
(iii)Variations in interpersonal trust.
(iv)Stereotypes and prejudices.
(v) Big egos.
(vi)Poor listening skills.
(vii) Natural tendency to evaluate others’ messages.
(viii) Inability to listen with understanding.
(ix)Nonverbal communication.
(3) Physical Barriers: Sound, Time, Space, and More See Slide 14-
15
(a) Physical barriers include time-zone differences, telephone-line static,
distance from others, and crashed computers.
(b) Office design is another physical barrier and more organizations are
designing facilities that promote open interactions.
(4) Semantic Barriers: When Words Matter See Slide 14-17
(a) Semantics: the study of words.
(b) Semantic barriers are more likely in today’s multicultural workforce.
(c) Jargon: language or terminology that is specific to a particular
profession, group, or company. See Slide 14-18
(d) Buzzwords are overused words or faddish phrases that become a form
of verbal or written shorthand.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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(e) Words that are ordinary to you may be unknown to others and it is
important to choose your words carefully.
iv) How Social Media Are Changing the Communication Landscape
(1) Social Media Overview
(a) Organizational communication and work life in general are being
significantly altered by social media.
(b) Two major impacts of social media are (1) immediate worldwide
personal access to unfiltered information and (2) bottom-up
empowerment.
(2) Managerial Implication
(a) Managers cannot afford to ignore or underestimate the speed and
bottom-up power of social media.
(b) Internal social media content can provide early warnings about
employee morale problems, human resource issues such as sexual
harassment, privileged information leaks, Internet and social media
abuse, ethical lapses, and simmering grievances.
(c) Monitoring external social media feeds and posts can help managers
stay in front of customer complaints and backlashes, emerging
competitive threats, and potential legal and public relations fiascos.
(d) The Real World/Real People: Rx: Social Media for Doctors? profiles
the use of social media by one doctor’s office.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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II. Interpersonal Communication
i) Interpersonal Communication Overview
(1) The quality of interpersonal communication within organizations is more
important than ever.
(2) Communication competence: performance-based index of an
individual’s abilities to effectively use communication behaviors in a given
context. See Slide 14-19
ii) Assertiveness, Aggressiveness, and Nonassertiveness
(1) Table 14-2: Communication Styles describes three communication
styles and identifies nonverbal and verbal behavior patterns associated
with each one. See Slide 14-21
(a) Assertive style: expressive and self-enhancing, but does not take
advantage of others.
(b) Aggressive style: expressive and self-enhancing, but takes unfair
advantage of others.
(c) Nonassertive style: inhibited and self-denying behavior.
(2) Managers may improve their communication competence by being more
assertive and less aggressive or nonassertive.
(3) Tips for saying no include: See Slide 14-22
(a) Don’t feel like you have to provide a yes or no answer on the spot.
(b) Be honest, and start your response with the word no.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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(c) Use nonverbal assertive behaviors to reinforce your words.
(d) Use verbal assertive behaviors.
iii) Nonverbal Communication See Slide 14-24
(1) Nonverbal Communication Overview
(a) Nonverbal communication: messages sent or received independent
of the written and spoken word. See Slide 14-23
(b) Nonverbal communication includes such factors as use of time and
space, distance between persons when conversing, use of color,
dress, walking behavior, standing, positioning, seating arrangement,
office locations and furnishings.
(c) Experts estimate that 65% of every conversation is partially interpreted
through nonverbal communication.
(d) It is important to ensure that your nonverbal signals are consistent with
your intended verbal messages.
(2) Body Movements and Gestures
(a) Body movements, such as leaning forward or backward, and gestures,
such as pointing, can either enhance or detract from the
communication process.
(b) Body-language analysis is subjective, easily misinterpreted, and highly
dependent on the context and cross-cultural differences.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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(3) Touch
(a) A meta-analysis of gender differences in touching indicated that
women do more touching during conversations than men.
(b) Norms for touching vary significantly around the world.
(4) Facial Expressions
(a) Facial expressions convey a wealth of information.
(b) A summary of relevant research revealed that the association between
facial expressions and emotions varies across cultures.
(5) Eye Contact
(a) Eye contact is a strong nonverbal cue that varies across cultures.
(b) Some cultures learn to look at individuals when conversing while
others are taught to avoid eye contact, especially when interacting with
a parent or superior.
(6) Practical Tips
(a) It is important to have good nonverbal communication skills in light of
the fact that they are related to the development of positive
interpersonal relationships.
(b) When conducting business in North America, maintaining appropriate
eye contact, occasionally using affirmative nods, smiling and showing
interest, leaning slightly toward the speaker, keeping your voice low
and relaxed, and being aware of your facial expressions would help
communication.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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iv) Active Listening
(1) Active Listening Overview
(a) Some communication experts contend that listening is the keystone
communication skill for employees involved in sales, customer service,
or management.
(b) Listening: actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages.
See Slide 14-26
(c) Unlike hearing, listening requires cognitive attention and information
processing.
(2) Listening Styles See Slides 14-27, 14-29, 14-30
(a) People have a dominant listening style, but tend to use a combination
of two or three.
(b) There are five dominate listening styles:
(i) Appreciative: listens in a relaxed manner.
(ii) Empathetic: interprets messages by focusing on the emotions and
body language being displayed by the speaker as well as the
presentation media.
(iii)Comprehensive: makes sense of messages by first organizing
specific thoughts and actions and then integrating this information
by focusing on relationships among ideas.
Chapter 14 - Communicating in the Digital Age
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(iv)Discerning: attempts to understand the main message and
determine important points.
(v) Evaluative: listens analytically and continually formulates
arguments and challenges what is being said.
(3) Becoming a More Effective Listener
(a) Effective listening is a learned skill that requires effort and motivation to
practice.
(b) Table 14-3: The Keys to Effective Listening compares bad and good
listeners. See Slide 14-31
(c) We can improve our listening skills by:
(i) Attending closely to what’s being said, not to what you want to say
next.
(ii) Allowing others to finish speaking before taking our turn.
(iii)Repeating back what you’ve heard to give the speaker the
opportunity to clarify the message.
v) Linguistic Styles and Gender
(1) Linguistic Styles Overview
(a) Linguistic style: a person’s typical speaking pattern.
(b) Linguistic styles incorporate such elements as directness or
indirectness, pacing and pausing, word choice, and the use of such
elements as jokes, figures of speech, stories, questions, and
apologies.
