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Chapter 14 – Communicating in the Digital Age

14-1

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: Communicating in the Digital Age

LEARNING OJBECTIVES

See Slides 14-2, 14-3

When you finish studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to:

• Explain the perceptual process model of communication, and describe the

barriers to effective communication.

• Specify two major impacts of social media that are changing the general

communication landscape.

• Contrast the communication styles of assertiveness, aggressiveness, and

nonassertiveness.

• Discuss the primary sources of nonverbal communication.

• Review the five dominant listening styles and 10 keys to effective listening.

• Describe how linguistic styles vary for women and men and what can be done to

improve everyone’s communication effectiveness.

• Discuss the formal and informal communication channels.

• Explain the contingency approach to media selection.

• Describe the Internet generation, and discuss the pros and cons of teleworking.

• Specify practical tips for more effective e-mail and cell phone etiquette, and

discuss policies for using social media Web sites in the workplace.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Chapter 14 defines communication and presents a process model of communication.

The various barriers to effective communication are described. This chapter discusses

communication competence. Elements of communication competence include

understanding assertive, aggressive and nonassertive communication styles, being

knowledgeable about the different forms of non-verbal communication, engaging in

active listening, and understanding how linguistic styles impact communication. Formal

and informal communication channels are described and factors impacting media

choice are discussed. Finally, this chapter explores how digital communication is

dramatically affecting many aspects of organizational behavior.

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Communication is defined as the exchange of information between a sender and a

receiver, and the inference of meaning between the individuals. Current views of

communication are based on a perceptual model of communication that depicts

communication as a process in which receivers create meaning within their own minds.

The following elements are a part of the perceptual process model: senders, receivers,

encoding, messages, medium, noise, decoding and feedback. The sender is the

person wanting to communicate information—the message. The receiver is the person,

group, or organization for whom the message is intended. Encoding translates mental

thoughts into a language that can be understood by others. People typically encode

using words, numbers, gestures, or nonverbal cues. The output of encoding is a

message. Messages can be communicated through different media including face–to–

face conversations and meetings, telephone calls, charts and graphs, and digital forms

of communication. Decoding is the receiver’s version of encoding and consists of

translating aspects of a message into a form that can be interpreted.

Miscommunication can occur if the receiver’s interpretation of a message differs from

that intended by the sender. Receivers act according to their own interpretations, not

the sender’s. At the point where the receiver responds to a message, he or she

becomes a sender by providing feedback. Noise is anything that interferes with the

transmission and understanding of a message.

Anything that gets in the way of the accurate transmission and reception of a message

is a barrier to effective communication. Barriers to effective communication include

process, personal, physical, and semantic barriers. As illustrated in Table 14–1 every

element of the perceptual model of communication is a potential process barrier.

Personal barriers include: an inability to effectively communicate, the way people

process and interpret information, lack of interpersonal trust, stereotypes and

prejudices, egos, poor listening skills, our natural tendency to evaluate or judge a

sender’s message, nonverbal communication, and an inability to listen with

understanding. Listening with understanding occurs when a receiver can see the

expressed idea and attitude from the other person’s point of view. Physical barriers to

communication include time-zone differences, telephone-line static, distance from

others, and office design. Semantic barriers are created by words because the words

used influence whether a message is interpreted as intended by the receiver. Semantic

barriers can be created by cultural differences and through the use of jargon, which

refers to language or terminology that is specific to a particular profession, group, or

company.

Organizational communication is being significantly altered by social media. Social

media provides immediate worldwide personal access to unfiltered information and

bottom-up empowerment. Managers cannot afford to ignore social media, which can

provide early warnings of internal problems and/or external issues.

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Communication competence is a performance-based index of an individual’s abilities to

effectively use communication behaviors in a given context. Three communication

styles are assertive, aggressive, and nonassertive. An assertive style is expressive and

self-enhancing, but does not take advantage of others, while an aggressive style is

similar but does take unfair advantage of others. A nonassertive style tends to be timid

and self-denying. Managers can improve their communication competence by trying to

be more assertive and less aggressive or nonassertive.

Nonverbal communication is any message sent or received outside of the written or

spoken word. Sources of nonverbal communication include body movements and

gestures, touching, facial expressions, and eye contact. Because of the prevalence of

nonverbal communication and its significant effect on organizational behavior, it is

important that managers become consciously aware of these sources of nonverbal

communication and to understand cultural differences in the meaning of nonverbal

communication.

Listening is the process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages. The five

dominant listening styles are appreciative, empathetic, comprehensive, discerning, and

evaluative. Good listeners: (1) capitalize on thought speed by staying with the speaker

and listening between the lines, (2) listen for ideas rather than facts, (3) identify areas of

interest between the speaker and listener, (4) judge content and not delivery, (5) do not

judge until the speaker has completed his or her message, (6) put energy and effort into

listening, (7) resist distractions, (8) listen to both favorable and unfavorable information,

(9) treat complex material as exercise for the mind, and (10) take notes when necessary

and use visual aids to enhance understanding.

Linguistic style refers to a person’s typical speaking pattern. Men and women generally

use different linguistic styles. Table 14-4 describes 10 gender-based communication

differences. Linguistic style may influence perceptions of confidence, competence, and

authority. Some experts recommend that men and women should learn to genderflex.

That is, they should be able to at least temporarily use communication behaviors typical

of the other gender. Others believe that everyone needs to become aware of how

linguistic styles work and how they influence our perceptions and judgments.

Formal communication channels follow the chain of command and include vertical,

horizontal, and external routes. Vertical communication involves the flow of information

up and down the organization. Upward communication involves communicating with

someone at a higher organizational level, while downward communication occurs when

someone at a higher level in the organization conveys information or a message

downward to one or more others. Horizontal communication flows within and between

employees working in different work units. External communication flows between

employees inside the organization and a variety of stakeholders outside the

organization.

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Informal communication channels do not follow the chain of command. Two commonly

used informal channels are the grapevine and management by walking around

(MBWA). The grapevine represents the unofficial communication system of the informal

organization and encompasses all types of communication media. The grapevine is

faster than formal channels, about 75% accurate, relied upon when people are

insecure, and not an isolated form of communication. Managers are encouraged to

monitor and influence the grapevine rather than wasting time trying to extinguish it.

MBWA involves managers walking around and informally talking to people from all

areas and levels. MBWA is an effective way to communicate because employees

prefer to get information directly from their manager.

Managers need to determine the appropriate media to use when communicating via the

various formal and informal channels of communication. Two factors should be

considered in this decision process: information richness and the complexity of the

problem/situation. Information richness is the capacity of a communication medium to

convey information and promote understanding. Information richness is determined by

feedback, channel, type of communication, and language source. The complexity of the

situation can range from low to high in complexity. Low-complexity situations are

routine, predictable, and managed by using objective or standard procedures, while

highly complex situations are ambiguous, unpredictable, hard to analyze, and often

emotionally laden. Effective communication occurs when the richness of the medium is

appropriately matched with the complexity of the situation. Figure 14-2 presents a

contingency model for selecting communication media. Managers should seek to avoid

the overload zone by using a medium too rich for a routine problem and avoid the

oversimplification zone by using a lean medium for complex problems.

The digital communication revolution is affecting organizational behavior, both positively

and negatively. Managers face the twin concerns of security and privacy. Prevention is

the key when it comes to protecting digital communication systems and Table 14-5

provides useful tips for prevention. The Net Generation (Net Gen) grew up with the

Internet as a central feature of their lives and their worldviews are transforming the

workplace. The eight norms of Net Gen profiled in Table 14-6 are freedom,

customization, scrutiny, integrity, collaboration, entertainment, speed, and innovation.

Telecommuting/ teleworking is doing work generally performed in the office at home or

in other convenient locations using advanced communication technologies.

Telecommuting/ teleworking can increase employee productivity, increase the

attractiveness of the employer, decrease operating costs, increase operationality during

a crisis, and contribute to green initiatives. The disadvantages of telecommuting/

teleworking are that they require self-discipline, they create an “out of sight, out of mind”

challenge, they result in professional isolation and they can create work-life balance

difficulties.

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The digital age can result in e-mail overkill. Table 14-7 provides some practical tips for

more effective email use. Problems created by pervasive cell phone usage range from

merely annoying, to unethical and illegal, to deadly. The cell phone etiquette tips

presented in Table 14-8 can make for a better digital-age. Companies need to have

clear policies for social media use in the workplace. Firms need to harness the benefits

of social media while respecting privacy rights and avoiding legal and ethical abuses by

employees. Table 14-9 provides guidelines which can be used to effectively harness

the power of social media.

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Basic Dimensions of the Communication Process and Social Media Impacts

i) Communication Overview

(1) Communication: the exchange of information between a sender and a

receiver, and the inference (perception) of meaning between the

individuals involved. See Slide 14-4

(2) Managers who understand the communication process can analyze their

own communication patterns as well as design communication programs

that fit organizational needs.

ii) Perceptual Process Model of Communication See Slides 14-6, 14–

8, 14-9, 14–10

(1) Perceptual Process Model of Communication Overview

(a) Historically, the communication process was described in terms of a

conduit model that viewed communication as a pipeline in which

information is transferred from person to person, but presently the

assumptions of the conduit model are viewed as unrealistic.

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(b) Researchers have begun to examine communication as a form of

social information processing in which receivers interpret messages by

cognitively processing information.

create their own meaning.

(2) Sender, Message, and Receiver

(a) The sender is the person wanting to communicate information—the

message.

(b) The receiver is the person, group, or organization for whom the

message is intended.

(3) Encoding

(a) Encoding translates mental thoughts into a code or language that can

be understood by others.

(b) The output of encoding is the message.

(4) Selecting a Medium

(a) Managers can communicate through a variety of media including face-

to-face conversations, phone calls, charts and graphs, and many

digital forms.

(b) The appropriateness of a medium depends on many factors, including

the nature of the message, its intended purpose, the audience,

proximity to the audience, time constraints, and personal skills and

preferences.

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different situations.

(5) Decoding and Creating Meaning

(a) Decoding occurs when receivers receive a message and it is the

process of interpreting and making sense of a message.

(b) The Real World/Real People: Navajo Language Became a WWII

Secret Weapon in an Odd Twist of History profiles the decoding

process.

messages their meaning.

(d) Decoding and creating the meaning of a message are influenced by

cultural norms and values.

(6) Feedback

(a) Feedback occurs when the receiver expresses a reaction to the

sender’s message.

(7) Noise

(a) Noise: anything that interferes with the transmission and

understanding of the message.

(b) Noise includes speech impairments, illegible handwriting, inaccurate

statistics, poor hearing and eyesight, environmental noises, people

talking, and physical distance between sender and receiver.

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sources of noise.

(d) Figure 14-1: Communication Process in Action summarizes the

elements of the perceptual communication process. See Slide

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iii) Barriers to Effective Communication See Slide 14–12

(1) Communication Barriers Overview

(a) For communication to be effective, senders must accurately

communicate their intended message, and receivers must perceive

and interpret the message accurately.

(b) Anything that gets in the way of the accurate transmission and

reception of a message is a barrier to effective communication.

Itself describes barriers that are part of the communication process

itself. See Slide 14-11

(2) Personal Barriers See Slides 14-13, 14-14

(a) Personal barriers represent any individual attributes that hinder

communication.

(b) Common personal barriers that foster miscommunication include:

(i) Variable skills in communicating effectively.

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(ii) Variations in how information is processed and interpreted.

(iii)Variations in interpersonal trust.

(iv)Stereotypes and prejudices.

(v) Big egos.

(vi)Poor listening skills.

(vii) Natural tendency to evaluate others’ messages.

(viii) Inability to listen with understanding.

(ix)Nonverbal communication.

(3) Physical Barriers: Sound, Time, Space, and More See Slide 14–

(a) Physical barriers include time-zone differences, telephone-line static,

distance from others, and crashed computers.

(b) Office design is another physical barrier and more organizations are

designing facilities that promote open interactions.

(4) Semantic Barriers: When Words Matter See Slide 14–17

(a) Semantics: the study of words.

(b) Semantic barriers are more likely in today’s multicultural workforce.

profession, group, or company. See Slide 14-18

(d) Buzzwords are overused words or faddish phrases that become a form

of verbal or written shorthand.

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(e) Words that are ordinary to you may be unknown to others and it is

important to choose your words carefully.

iv) How Social Media Are Changing the Communication Landscape

(1) Social Media Overview

(a) Organizational communication and work life in general are being

significantly altered by social media.

(b) Two major impacts of social media are (1) immediate worldwide

personal access to unfiltered information and (2) bottom-up

empowerment.

(2) Managerial Implication

(a) Managers cannot afford to ignore or underestimate the speed and

bottom-up power of social media.

(b) Internal social media content can provide early warnings about

employee morale problems, human resource issues such as sexual

harassment, privileged information leaks, Internet and social media

abuse, ethical lapses, and simmering grievances.

stay in front of customer complaints and backlashes, emerging

competitive threats, and potential legal and public relations fiascos.

(d) The Real World/Real People: Rx: Social Media for Doctors? profiles

the use of social media by one doctor’s office.

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II. Interpersonal Communication

i) Interpersonal Communication Overview

(1) The quality of interpersonal communication within organizations is more

important than ever.

(2) Communication competence: performance-based index of an

individual’s abilities to effectively use communication behaviors in a given

context. See Slide 14-19

ii) Assertiveness, Aggressiveness, and Nonassertiveness

(1) Table 14-2: Communication Styles describes three communication

styles and identifies nonverbal and verbal behavior patterns associated

with each one. See Slide 14-21

(a) Assertive style: expressive and self-enhancing, but does not take

advantage of others.

(b) Aggressive style: expressive and self-enhancing, but takes unfair

advantage of others.

(2) Managers may improve their communication competence by being more

assertive and less aggressive or nonassertive.

(3) Tips for saying no include: See Slide 14-22

(a) Don’t feel like you have to provide a yes or no answer on the spot.

(b) Be honest, and start your response with the word no.

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(d) Use verbal assertive behaviors.

iii) Nonverbal Communication See Slide 14-24

(1) Nonverbal Communication Overview

(a) Nonverbal communication: messages sent or received independent

of the written and spoken word. See Slide 14-23

(b) Nonverbal communication includes such factors as use of time and

space, distance between persons when conversing, use of color,

dress, walking behavior, standing, positioning, seating arrangement,

office locations and furnishings.

through nonverbal communication.

(d) It is important to ensure that your nonverbal signals are consistent with

your intended verbal messages.

(2) Body Movements and Gestures

(a) Body movements, such as leaning forward or backward, and gestures,

such as pointing, can either enhance or detract from the

communication process.

(b) Body-language analysis is subjective, easily misinterpreted, and highly

dependent on the context and cross-cultural differences.

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(3) Touch

(a) A meta-analysis of gender differences in touching indicated that

women do more touching during conversations than men.

(b) Norms for touching vary significantly around the world.

(4) Facial Expressions

(a) Facial expressions convey a wealth of information.

(b) A summary of relevant research revealed that the association between

facial expressions and emotions varies across cultures.

(5) Eye Contact

(a) Eye contact is a strong nonverbal cue that varies across cultures.

(b) Some cultures learn to look at individuals when conversing while

others are taught to avoid eye contact, especially when interacting with

a parent or superior.

(6) Practical Tips

(a) It is important to have good nonverbal communication skills in light of

the fact that they are related to the development of positive

interpersonal relationships.

(b) When conducting business in North America, maintaining appropriate

eye contact, occasionally using affirmative nods, smiling and showing

interest, leaning slightly toward the speaker, keeping your voice low

and relaxed, and being aware of your facial expressions would help

communication.

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iv) Active Listening

(1) Active Listening Overview

(a) Some communication experts contend that listening is the keystone

communication skill for employees involved in sales, customer service,

or management.

(b) Listening: actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages.

See Slide 14-26

processing.

(2) Listening Styles See Slides 14-27, 14-29, 14-30

(a) People have a dominant listening style, but tend to use a combination

of two or three.

(b) There are five dominate listening styles:

(i) Appreciative: listens in a relaxed manner.

(ii) Empathetic: interprets messages by focusing on the emotions and

body language being displayed by the speaker as well as the

presentation media.

(iii)Comprehensive: makes sense of messages by first organizing

specific thoughts and actions and then integrating this information

by focusing on relationships among ideas.

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(iv)Discerning: attempts to understand the main message and

determine important points.

(v) Evaluative: listens analytically and continually formulates

arguments and challenges what is being said.

(3) Becoming a More Effective Listener

(a) Effective listening is a learned skill that requires effort and motivation to

practice.

(b) Table 14-3: The Keys to Effective Listening compares bad and good

listeners. See Slide 14-31

(i) Attending closely to what’s being said, not to what you want to say

next.

(ii) Allowing others to finish speaking before taking our turn.

(iii)Repeating back what you’ve heard to give the speaker the

opportunity to clarify the message.

v) Linguistic Styles and Gender

(1) Linguistic Styles Overview

(a) Linguistic style: a person’s typical speaking pattern.

(b) Linguistic styles incorporate such elements as directness or

indirectness, pacing and pausing, word choice, and the use of such

elements as jokes, figures of speech, stories, questions, and

apologies.