Chapter 08 – Training and Development
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CHAPTER 8
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
1. Define what is meant by training and explain why it is a critical function for corporations
today.
2. Explain how to conduct a needs assessment, including performing organizational, task,
and person analyses and deriving instructional objectives for a training program.
3. Know how to design a training program to facilitate learning.
4. Identify the critical elements related to transfer of training.
5. Compare and contrast the various techniques available for training, including their
relative advantages and disadvantages, with particular emphasis on e-learning.
6. Identify criteria to use to evaluate training effectiveness.
7. Understand different experimental designs that can be used for evaluating training
programs.
8. Understand the components of training programs for employee orientation and
onboarding, teamwork, generational issues, diversity awareness, sexual harassment,
creativity, and international assignments.
Chapter 08 – Training and Development
CHAPTER 8 – CHAPTER SUMMARY
I. Overview
A. Employee training is a high performance work practice
1. Training and development are contributors to a company’s bottom line
2. Exceptional training is characteristic of companies identified as the “best” to work
for
3. Successful companies align their training with other high performance work
1. Importance of ethics
2. Economic changes
3. Technological changes
4. Increased workforce diversity
5. Changing concept of work
6. Increased need for flexibility
C. Increased pressure to compete through
1. Improved quality
2. Customer service
3. Lower costs
1. Companies are using a scale of workforce trainability as part of analysis for
expansion and plant openings
E. Companies also provide life training in addition to skills training
II. Defining Training and Development
A. Training is any attempt to improve employee performance on current job
1. Need to align training with the corporate strategy
2. Create engaged learning environments
B. Development is learning opportunities designed to help employees grow
III. Extent of Training and Development
A. Organizations spend more each year on training expenditures
1. Estimated that companies spent 125.88 billion on learning and development
2. In 2009 ASTD’s best companies reported an average of 47 hours of learning
content per employee
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3. ASTD 2006 Research-to-Practice conference proceedings
a. Intent is to close the gap between research and practice
V. Needs Assessment: First Step in Training
A. Determine that a need for training actually exists; discrepancy between desired and
what exists
B. Needs Assessment: Systematic, objective determination of training needs
1. Organizational analysis
a. Answers the question where training emphasis should be placed, and what
factors may affect training
b. Review the organization’s or unit’s short and long-range goals
c. Review human resources inventories
i) HRIS can reveal projected employee mobility, retirements, turnover, or
number of employees in each KASOC or competency group
d. Review climate indexes and surveys
e. Identify organizational system constraints
f. Use new or archival information to test hypotheses
i) Data “mining” to test theories about training needs
ii) What are discrepancies between desired and actual performance
2. Job/Task analysis
a. Answers the question of what should be taught in training
b. Worker-oriented approach identifies KASOCs and behaviors needed
c. Task-oriented approach describes the work activities
i) Beneficial in identifying specific training objectives that are used in
curriculum development and program evaluation
d. Critical Incident Technique (CIT) provides job detail and consequences of
specific behaviors
e. Discrepancies in information should be resolved before design of training
programs
f. O*Net describes specific training for each occupation
3. Person analysis
a. Answers the question of who needs training and specific type
b. Actual performance is compared to expected performance standards
Chapter 08 – Training and Development
C. Techniques for Collecting Needs Assessment Data, Figure 8.4, p. 282
1. Varies by type of analysis
2. Important to coordinate and integrate results
D. Deriving Instructional Objectives
1. Well-written objectives should contain:
a. Observable actions
b. Measurable criteria
c. Conditions of performance
2. Advantages to developing learning objectives include:
a. Identify criteria for evaluating programs
1. Integrate learning principles into the design of program and materials
2. Goal to maximize transfer of new behaviors back to the job
3. Design programs to meet the needs of adults learners
1. Trainability
a. Ability, including higher cognitive ability (higher math and reading skills)
b. Motivation to learn
i. Personal traits associated with motivation
ii. More involved tend to be more motivated
iii. Assess attitudes and expectation
iv. Choice v. required training
v. Link to compensation
c. Assess readiness to participate in online learning
2. Gaining the support of trainees and others
a. Outline benefits of employees attending training (e.g., intrinsic and extrinsic
benefits)
b. Gain support from supervisors, co-workers and subordinates
c. Consider opinions on content, location and times of training
C. Conditions of the Learning Environment
1. Whole vs. Part Learning
a. Show trainees the whole “performance” to begin
b. Break complex tasks into component parts
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2. Massed vs. Spaced Practice
a. Spaced practice more effective than massed practice
i. Allows for observation and feedback
ii. Allows for long-term retention and transfer to the work setting
iii. Takes more time
3. Overlearning- practicing far beyond the point of performing the task successfully
a. Critical for both acquisition and transfer of KASOCs
b. Increases retention over time
c. Makes the behavior or skill more automatic
d. Increases the quality of the performance during stress
e. Helps trainees transfer what they have learned back to the job setting
f. Recommended when the task will not be practiced immediately
4. Goal setting
a. Helps employees improve their performance by directing their attention to
specific behaviors that need to be changed
b. Goal setting has led to an average increase of 19 percent in performance
c. Training programs should include specific, yet challenging goals
5. Knowledge of results
a. Provide timely and specific feedback
6. Attention
a. Create a comfortable training environment
b. Ensure trainees understand and accept the learning objectives
7. Retention
a. Present an overview of training at the beginning
b. Use examples familiar to the trainees
c. Organize material from simple to complex
d. Provide time for rehearsal and tests
D. Using Learning Principles to Develop Training Materials
1. Materials used should stimulate trainees into learning and remembering the
information
2. Learning principles need to be built into training materials
3. Clearly state the objectives of the material and a summary should be provided
E. Transfer of training
1. Before Training
a. Align the training program with the organization’s needs using competency
modeling
Chapter 08 – Training and Development
c. Use sound instructional design theory
d. Develop application-oriented objectives based on the competency
2. During Training
a. Maximize similarity between training and job context
b. Require practice of new behaviors & overlearning
3. After Training
a. Encourage trainees to practice skills on their jobs in between training sessions
b. Ensure a supportive climate for learning and for transfer of new behaviors/skils
c. Have trainees present their new learning to co-workers
d. Provide opportunities to demonstrate use of the new skills
e. Encourage continual learning by employees
4. Relapse Prevention
a. High risk situations can lead to relapse
b. A set of self control and coping strategies should be taught
c. Learn to identify and anticipate high risk situations
d. Self-efficacy is important
F. Choosing Methods for the Training Program
1. Two categories: Informational and Experiential
2. Experiential favored by trainees
3. Most effective to use multiple methods
4. Cost is a consideration
G. Informational methods; primarily one-way communication
1. Lectures
a. The most common technique used for training
2. Audio and Video Material
a. Audiovisual include films slides, white boards, and overheads
b. Video conferencing becoming more affordable
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d. Methods allow for reduced cost, increased participation and learner
engagement
3. Self-Directed Learning (SDL) Methods
a. Several methods are considered SDL
b. The learner takes responsibility for learning at own pace
c. Company can provide a learning center
d. Advantages
i. Reduced training time
ii. Favorable attitudes by trainees
iii. Consistency with an adult learning approach
iv. Minimal reliance on instructors or trainers
v. Mobility, a variety of places can be used for training
vi. Flexibility, trainees can learn at their own pace
vii. Consistency of the information taught to all trainees
viii. Cost savings
e. Disadvantages
ix. High developmental time for course materials and extensive planning
requirements
x. Difficulties in revising and updating materials
xi. Limited interactions with peers and trainers
f. Self –Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) can be used to determine is
learner is ready for self directed learning
g. Types of Self-directed Learning
xii. Independent Study
xiii. E-Learning
xiv. Effective means for training declarative knowledge
1. Includes social networks and shared media for example YouTube, etc
2. Online courses rely on SDL approach
a. Participants need opportunities to interact and practice to truly learn
b. Use of a variety of exercises, videos, etc can allow for practice of skills
I. Experiential methods; used to teach physical and cognitive skills
1. On-the-Job Training (OJT)
a. Often an informal method of training
b. Any training conducted on-site in the context of the job
2. Computer-Based Training (CBT)/E-Learning
a. Can reduce costs and reach more people
Chapter 08 – Training and Development
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b. Web-based better for teaching declarative and procedural knowledge
c. Trainees more satisfied with training when there were higher levels of
human interaction
d. Symbolic mental rehearsal
e. Chunking-chopping CBT into smallest parts
f. Electronic training-delivery media
i. Fastest growing instructional method
ii. Offers revolutionary ways to present interactive training
iii. CBT systems link to the Internet and company intranets
iv. ASTD’s “best” firms use online learning in combination with other
methods
3. Distance Learning Programs
a. Fastest growing sector of the training market
b. Incorporates a “green” perspective to training
c. Benefits
xi. Offered easy access to learning resources
4. Equipment Simulations
a. Machines or equipment designed to reproduce physiological and
psychological conditions of the real world
b. While potentially costly, incurs a fraction of cost of using the real equipment
5. Games, Simulations, and Outdoor Experiential Programs
a. Business games; allow trainees to assume various roles in the company
b. In-basket, train managerial candidates in decision making
6. Case Analyses
a. Used in management training to improve analytical skills
b. Can be used individually or with group learning
7. Role Playing
a. Trainees attempt to perform the behaviors
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8. Behavior modeling
a. Excellent approach for training trainers/managers
b. Consists of 4 components
i. Attention
ii. Retention
iii. Motor reproduction
iv. Motivation or feedback
9. Considerations when Choosing a Training Method
a. Motivate the trainee to learn the new skills
b. Illustrate the desired skills to be learned
c. Be consistent with the content (e.g., use an interactive approach to teach
interpersonal skills)
d. Allow for active participation by the trainees to fit with the adult learning
model
e. Provide opportunities for practice and over learning
f. Provide feedback on performance during training
g. Structured from simple to complex
h. Encourage positive transfer from the training to the job
i. Be cost effective
VII. Evaluation
A. Barriers to Training Evaluation
1. Evaluation makes it possible to show that training was the reason for
improvement
2. Few organizations evaluate their training programs. 77% said their evaluation
does not provide meaningful information
3. 11.4 respondents hold managers accountable for tracking pre and post training
performance
4. Barriers include
a. Difficult to isolate training’s impact on results vs. other factors
b. Useful evaluation function does not exist
c. Data is not standardized
d. Cost is prohibitive
e. Leaders do not care
f. Data is difficult to interpret
g. Evaluation is not seen as credible
B. Types of Criteria
1. Reactions – assess trainee’s opinions, including reactions to trainer, subject
matter, materials, and environment
a. Uses largest part of evaluation budget
b. Important to assess satisfaction with multiple aspects of training
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c. Despite high use, only 35.9% feel this method is of high value
d. Low correlation between reactions and other criteria
e. Reasons to collect the data
i. Discover how satisfied trainees were with the program
ii. Make needed revisions to the program
iii. Ensure that other trainees will be receptive to attending the program
2. Learning – assesses the degree to which the trainees have mastered the concepts,
knowledge, and skills in the training
a. Designed to sample the content of the training program
b. Test before and after training
c. Necessary but insufficient prerequisite for changes to on the job behavior
d. In a 2009 ASTD survey, 54.9% of respondents believe these measures have
high value
3. Behaviors/Performance- measures actual on the job performance
a. Operationalized by using supervisor ratings
b. Measure before and after the training, and compare
c. 75% of respondents believe these measures have high value
4. Organizational Results- impact of training on the work group or entire company
a. Collect data before and after training
b. Includes criteria such as customer satisfaction, productivity, and turnover
c. Difficult to measure without careful design
d. Only 36.9 % of respondents measure results, although 75% believe the results
have high value
C. Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Training
1. Costs estimate
a. One-time costs
b. Costs associated with each training session
c. Costs associated with trainees
2. Benefits difficult to estimate
3. Return on Investment (ROI)
a. Net program benefits divided by program costs multiplied by 100
b. Need to use reliable, credible and conservative estimates
c. Involve management to determine acceptable ROI target goals
4. Utility Analysis
a. A function of 5 factors measuring the economic contribution of the training
b. Based on subjective estimates, has not gained widespread acceptance
D. Designs for Evaluating Training
1. Should meet two criteria
2. Designs for training evaluation
a. One-Shot Post-test-Only Design
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b. One-group pretest-post-test design
c. Posttest-only control group design
d. Pretest-posttest control-group design
e. Multiple time-series design
E. Benchmarking Training Efforts
1. Training activities
2. Training results
3. Training efficiency
VIII. Planning for Training Effectiveness in Organizations
A. Guidelines on planning “collaborative” interventions (Figure 8–13)
1. Develop a theory of impact
2. Reframe the point of evaluation from proof to evidence
3. Isolate the effects of training
4. Establish accountability for training
IX. Special Training Programs
A. Training for Generational Transitions
1. Retiring Baby Boomers will cause a labor shortage
2. Generation X & Y training
3. Necessary to retain a percentage of older workers while also training the next
generation
B. Employee Orientation Programs & Onboarding
1. Goal to ease new employee’s transition into the organization
2. Intent to increase job satisfaction and reduce turnover
3. Most not properly planned, implemented, or evaluated
4. The objectives are:
a. Assist trainees in adjusting to new role and feel comfortable and positive
b. Clarify job requirements, demands, and performance expectations
c. Gain understanding of the organization’s culture, and quickly adopt the
organization’s goals, values and behaviors
5. Most programs consist of three stages:
a. General introduction to the organization
b. Specific orientation, the job, and policy, to the department and the job
c. Follow-up meeting to verify that the important issues have been discussed
6. Well developed orientation programs are rare
7. Onboarding- systematic process to establish a positive trajectory early in a
person’s career
Chapter 08 – Training and Development
a. Typically aimed at new managers, implemented over a period of weeks or
months
b. Four phases
i) Pre-arrival
ii) Orientation/introduction
iii. Assimilation
iv. integration/contribution
c. Differs from orientation in terms of timing, focus, delivery, and responsibility
C. Training for Teams
1. Team training focuses on working together more effectively
2. Trust building is an important component
a. Problem solving
b. Communication skills
c. Conflict management
3. Cross-functional teams need cross training
D. Diversity Awareness Training.
1. A diverse workforce requires diversity training
2. Areas of focus include
a. Creating a diverse workforce
b. Managing a diverse workforce
c. Creating an environment that values diversity
d. Leveraging diversity into a competitive advantage
3. Consultants offer learning, consulting and assessment solutions
4. Diversity training programs linked to reduction in disability discrimination suits
5. Programs are flawed; for instance, lack metrics for evaluation, and training is not
reinforced
6. Programs need senior management support
7. Programs need to be fully integrated into corporate strategy and other systems
E. Sexual Harassment Training
1. Training has increased dramatically
2. Training provides an affirmative defense for organizations
3. Training should include:
a. Statement of opposition to sexual harassment
4. Many organizations use e-learning for sexual harassment training
F. Cross-cultural Training & Training for International Assignments
1. Increase globalization is a workplace trend
2. Cross cultural training should be a lifetime endeavor