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Chapter 02 Lecture Notes
2-1
Chapter 2
Lecture Notes
Chapter theme: Managers need to assign costs to products
to facilitate external financial reporting and internal
decision making. This chapter illustrates an absorption
costing approach to calculating product costs known as
job-order costing.
Helpful Hint: Briefly review the concepts of fixed and
variable manufacturing costs to help students grasp the
meaning of absorption costing. Mention that total fixed
costs are constant and therefore change on a per unit
basis. Variable costs are proportional to the number of
units produced and are constant on a per unit basis.
I. Job-order costing: an overview
A. Job-order costing systems are used when:
i. Many different products are produced each
period.
ii. Products are manufactured to order.
iii. The unique nature of each order requires tracing or
allocating costs to each job, and maintaining cost
records for each job.
B. Examples of companies that would use job-order
costing include:
i. Boeing (aircraft manufacturing)
ii. Bechtel International (large scale construction)
iii. Walt Disney studios (movie production)
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Chapter 02 Lecture Notes
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II. Job-order costing−an example
A. Types of manufacturing costs that are assigned to
products using a job-order costing system:
i. Direct costs
1. Direct materials − Traced directly to each
job as the work is performed.
2. Direct labor − Traced directly to each job as
the work is performed.
ii. Indirect costs
1. Manufacturing overhead (including
indirect materials and indirect labor). These
costs are allocated to jobs rather than
directly traced to each job.
B. The job cost sheet − The accounting department relies
upon a job cost sheet for tracking the direct and
indirect costs associated with a given job.
i. An overview of a job cost sheet for a hypothetical
company called PearCo:
1. A job number uniquely identifies each job.
2. Direct material, direct labor, and
manufacturing overhead costs are
accumulated for each job.
3. The job cost sheet is a subsidiary ledger to
the Work in Process account.
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ii. Measuring direct materials cost
1. Once a sales order has been received and a
production order issued, the Production
Department prepares a materials requisition
form to specify the type, quantity, and total
cost of materials (e.g., $116) to be drawn
from the storeroom, and the job number (e.g.,
A-143) to which the cost of the materials is
to be charged.
a. For an existing product, the
production department can refer to a
bill of materials to determine the
type and quantity of each item of
materials needed to complete a unit
of product.
2. The Accounting Department records the total
direct material cost (e.g., $116) on the
appropriate job cost sheet. Notice, the
material requisition number (e.g., X7-
6890) is included on the job cost sheet to
provide easy access to the source document.
iii. Measuring direct labor costs
1. Workers use time tickets to record the
amount of time that they spent on each job
and the total cost assigned to each job.
2. The Accounting Department records the
labor costs from the time tickets (e.g., $88)
on to the job cost sheet.
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Chapter 02 Lecture Notes
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iv. Computing predetermined overhead rates
Learning Objective 2-1: Compute a predetermined
overhead rate.
1. An allocation base, such as direct labor
hours, direct labor dollars, or machine hours,
is used to assign manufacturing overhead to
products. Allocation bases are used because:
a. It is impossible or difficult to trace
these costs to particular jobs (i.e.,
manufacturing overhead is an
indirect cost).
b. Manufacturing overhead consists of
many different items ranging from
the grease used in machines to the
production manager’s salary.
c. Many types of manufacturing
overhead costs are fixed even though
output may fluctuate during the year.
2. The predetermined overhead rate is
calculated by dividing the estimated amount
of manufacturing overhead for the coming
period by the estimated quantity of the
allocation base for the coming period.
Ideally, the allocation base chosen should be
the cost driver of overhead cost.
a. Predetermined overhead rates that
rely upon estimated data are often
used because:
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Chapter 02 Lecture Notes
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(1). Actual overhead costs for the
period are not known until the
end of the period, thus
inhibiting the ability to estimate
job costs during the period.
(2). Actual overhead costs can
fluctuate seasonally, thus
misleading decision makers.
3. Predetermined overhead rates are calculated
using a four-step process.
(1). The first step is to estimate the
total amount of the allocation
base required for next period’s
estimated level of production.
(2). The second step is to estimate
the total fixed manufacturing
overhead cost for the coming
period and the variable
manufacturing overhead cost
per unit of the allocation base.
(3). The third step is to use a cost
formula to estimate the total
manufacturing overhead cost
for the coming period.
(4). The fourth step is to compute
the predetermined overhead
rate.
v. Applying manufacturing overhead
Learning Objective 2-2: Apply overhead cost to jobs
using a predetermined overhead rate.
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1. Manufacturing overhead is applied to jobs
using the predetermined overhead rate
multiplied by the actual amount of the
allocation base used completing the job (this
is called a normal costing system). For
example, assume PearCo:
a. Applies overhead to jobs based on
direct labor hours.
b. Estimated that 160,000 direct labor
hours would be required to support
the planned production for the year.
c. Estimated $200,000 of total fixed
overhead cost and $2.75 of variable
overhead per direct labor-hour.
d. Used a cost formula to estimate its
total manufacturing overhead cost of
$640,000.
e. Calculated its predetermined
overhead rate of $4 per direct labor
hour.
(1). The amount of overhead that
would be applied to the job cost
sheet that we have been
working with related to Job A-
143 is $32, calculated as
follows:
(a). Eight direct labor hours
were worked on Job A-
143.
(b). The predetermined
overhead rate is $4 per
direct labor hour.
(c). 8 direct labor hours $4
per hour = $32.
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Learning Objective 2-3: Compute the total cost and
average cost per unit of a job.
vi. Completing the job cost sheet
1. The total direct material, direct labor, and
manufacturing overhead costs assigned to
Job A-143 is $236.
a. Since this job included two units, the
average cost per unit is $118. The
average unit cost should not be
interpreted as the costs that would
actually be incurred if another unit
was produced.
b. The fixed overhead would not change
if another unit were produced, so the
incremental cost of another unit is
something less than $118.
Quick Check
−
job cost accounting
III. Job-order costing−the flow of costs
Learning Objectives 2-4 and 2-5: Understand the flow
of costs in a job-order costing system and prepare
appropriate journal entries to record costs. Use
T-accounts to show the flow of costs in a job-order
costing system.
Helpful Hint: Sometimes students need a brief review of
journal entries and the use of T-accounts before
beginning this section of the chapter.
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Chapter 02 Lecture Notes
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A. Key definitions
i. Raw materials include any materials that go into
the final product.
ii. Work in process consists of units of production
that are only partially complete and will require
further work before they are ready for sale to
customers.
iii. Finished goods consist of completed units of
product that have not yet been sold to customers.
iv. Cost of goods manufactured includes the
manufacturing costs associated with the goods that
were finished during the period.
B. Flow of cost: a conceptual overview
i. Raw materials purchases are recorded in the Raw
Materials inventory account.
ii. When raw materials are used in production, their
costs are transferred to the Work in Process
inventory account as direct materials.
iii. Direct labor costs are added directly to Work in
Process—they do not flow through Raw Materials
inventory.
iv. Manufacturing overhead costs are applied to
Work in Process by multiplying the predetermined
overhead rate by the actual quantity of the
allocation base consumed by each job.
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v. When goods are completed, their costs are
transferred from Work in Process to Finished
Goods.
vi. The amount transferred from Work in Process to
Finished Goods is referred to as the cost of goods
manufactured.
vii. As goods are sold, their costs are transferred from
Finished Goods to Cost of Goods Sold.
viii. Period costs (or selling and administrative
expenses) do not flow through inventories on the
balance sheet. They are recorded as expenses on the
income statement in the period incurred.
C. The transactions (in T-account and journal entry form)
that capture the flow of costs in a job-order costing
system are as follows:
i. The purchase and issue of raw materials
1. In T-account form:
a. The cost of raw material purchases is
debited, and although not shown, the
credit side of the transaction would
be to Accounts Payable.
b. The cost of direct material
requisitions is debited to Work in
Process and added to the job cost
sheets which serve as a subsidiary
ledger.
c. The cost of indirect material
requisitions is debited to
Manufacturing Overhead.
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2. In journal entry form:
a. Debit Raw Materials and credit
Accounts Payable.
b. Debit Work in Process and
Manufacturing Overhead and credit
Raw Materials.
ii. The recording of labor costs
1. In T-account form:
a. Direct labor costs are debited to
Work in Process and added to the job
cost sheets which serve as a
subsidiary ledger.
b. Indirect labor costs are debited to
Manufacturing Overhead.
2. In journal entry form:
a. Debit Work in Process and
Manufacturing Overhead and credit
Salaries and Wages Payable.
iii. Recording actual manufacturing overhead costs
(other than indirect materials and indirect labor)
1. In T-account form:
a. The manufacturing overhead costs
are debited to Manufacturing
Overhead.
b. The credit side of the entry is the
various liability accounts (e.g.,
Accounts Payable and Property
Taxes Payable), prepaid asset
accounts (e.g., Prepaid Insurance),
and contra-asset accounts (e.g.,
Accumulated Depreciation).
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2. In journal entry form:
a. Debit Manufacturing Overhead and
credit various accounts as shown.
iv. Applying manufacturing overhead costs to
work in process
1. In T-account form:
a. Work in process is debited and
Manufacturing Overhead is credited
by the amount of the actual quantity
of the allocation base multiplied by
the predetermined rate.
b. Actual manufacturing overhead
costs are not debited to Work in
Process, nor are they charged to jobs
via the job cost sheets.
c. The Manufacturing Overhead
account is a clearing account. The
actual amount of overhead incurred
during the period on the debit side of
the account will almost certainly not
equal the amount applied to Work in
Process as shown on the credit side
of the account. This requires a year-
end adjusting entry that will be
discussed shortly.
2. In journal entry form:
a. Debit Work in Process and credit
Manufacturing Overhead.
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Helpful Hint: Students sometimes have difficulty
understanding the use of Manufacturing Overhead as a
clearing account. Explain that the purpose of the
clearing account is to find any discrepancy that exists
between the amount of overhead applied to inventory
and the amount of overhead actually incurred. Actual
overhead incurred is debited to the account. Overhead
applied to inventory using the predetermined rate is
credited to the account.
v. Accounting for nonmanufacturing costs
Helpful Hint: Review the concepts of product and
period costs at this point. Since period costs are not
directly related to the actual manufacture of the
products, they are expensed as incurred.
1. Companies that use job-order cost systems to
assign manufacturing costs to products also
incur nonmanufacturing costs.
2. Nonmanufacturing costs should not go into
the Manufacturing Overhead account.
3. Nonmanufacturing costs are not assigned to
individual jobs, rather they are expensed in
the period incurred. For example:
a. The salary expenses of employees
that work in a marketing, selling, or
administrative capacity are expensed
in the period incurred.
b. Advertising expenses are expensed in
the period incurred.
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vi. Transferring completed units from work in
process to finished goods
1. In T-account form:
a. The sum of all amounts transferred
from work in process to finished
goods represents the cost of goods
manufactured for the period.
b. The Finished Goods Inventory is
debited and the Work in Process
account is credited.
2. In journal entry form:
a. Debit Finished Goods and credit
Work in Process.
vii. Transferring finished goods to cost of goods sold
1. In T-account form:
a. Debit Cost of Goods Sold and credit
Finished Goods.
b. If only a portion of the units
associated with a particular job are
shipped, then the unit cost figure
from the job cost sheet is used to
determine the amount of the journal
entry.
c. This journal entry is also
accompanied by a journal entry that
recognizes the sales revenue.
2. In journal entry form:
a. Debit Accounts Receivable and credit
Sales.
b. Debit Cost of Goods Sold and credit
Finished Goods.
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Chapter 02 Lecture Notes
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Helpful Hint: As a concluding thought, remind students
that all inventory accounts are governed by the same
logic: Beginning inventory + Additions = Ending
Inventory + Transfers out. In the case of raw materials,
transfers out consist of both direct and indirect
materials requisitions. Direct materials requisitions are
added to Work in Process inventory. Indirect materials
requisitions are debited to Manufacturing Overhead.
Additions to Work in Process consist of direct materials
requisitions, direct labor, and overhead applied.
Transfers out of Work in Process consist of costs
transferred to Finished Goods. Transfers out of
Finished Goods consist of Cost of Goods Sold.
IV. Schedules of cost of goods manufactured and cost of
goods sold
Learning Objective 2-6: Prepare schedules of cost of
goods manufactured and cost of goods sold and an
income statement.
A. Key concepts
i. This schedule contains three types of costs,
namely direct materials, direct labor, and
manufacturing overhead.
ii. It calculates the cost of raw material and
direct labor used in production and the
amount of manufacturing overhead applied to
production.
iii. It calculates the manufacturing costs
associated with goods that were finished
during the period.
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B. Product cost flows
iv. To create a schedule of cost of goods
manufactured, as well as a balance sheet and
income statement, it is important to
understand the flow of product costs:
1. Raw material purchases made during the
period are added to beginning raw materials
inventory. The ending raw materials
inventory is deducted to arrive at the raw
materials used in production.
a. As items are removed from raw
materials inventory and placed into the
production process, they are called
direct materials.
2. Direct labor used in production and
manufacturing overhead applied to
production are added to direct materials to
arrive at total manufacturing costs.
3. Total manufacturing costs are added to the
beginning work in process to arrive at total
work in process.
4. The ending work in process inventory is
deducted from the total work in process for
the period to arrive at the cost of goods
manufactured.
5. The cost of goods manufactured is added to
the beginning finished goods inventory to
arrive at cost of goods available for sale.
The ending finished goods inventory is
deducted from this figure to arrive at cost of
goods sold.
Quick Check
−
product cost flows
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V. Underapplied and overapplied overhead—a closer look
Learning Objective 2-7: Compute underapplied or
overapplied overhead cost and prepare the journal
entry to close the balance in Manufacturing Overhead
to the appropriate accounts.
A. There are two key concepts related to this topic, the
first of which is:
i. Defining and computing underapplied and
overapplied overhead
1. The difference between the overhead cost
applied to Work in Process and the actual
overhead costs of a period is termed either
underapplied or overapplied overhead.
a. Underapplied overhead exists when
the amount of overhead applied to
jobs during the period using the
predetermined overhead rate is less
than the total amount of overhead
actually incurred during the period.
b. Overapplied overhead exists when
the amount of overhead applied to
jobs during the period using the
predetermined overhead rate is
greater than the total amount of
overhead actually incurred during the
period.
Helpful Hint: Students need to understand that factory
overhead must be estimated at the beginning of the
production period. Therefore, there most likely will be a
difference between actual and applied overhead. A
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debit balance in the Manufacturing Overhead account
indicates more overhead has been incurred than has
been applied to inventory and overhead is
underapplied. A credit balance indicates more
overhead has been applied than has been incurred and
overhead is overapplied.
2. Computing underapplied or overapplied
overhead, an example:
a. Assume that PearCo’s actual
overhead and direct labor hours for
the year were $650,000 and 170,000,
respectively.
b. Recall that PearCo’s total estimated
overhead and direct labor hours for
the year were $640,000 and 160,000,
respectively. Therefore, the
predetermined overhead rate would
be $4 per direct labor hour.
c. The amount of overhead applied to
jobs during the year would be
170,000 direct labor hours × $4 per
hour = $680,000.
d. In this example, overhead was
overapplied by $680,000 − $650,000
= $30,000.
Quick Check
−
underapplied and overapplied overhead
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Chapter 02 Lecture Notes
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ii. Disposition of underapplied or overapplied
overhead balances
1. Any remaining balance in the Manufacturing
Overhead account, such as PearCo.’s
$30,000 of overapplied overhead, is closed
out to Cost of Goods Sold using the
following journal entry:
a. Debit Manufacturing Overhead and
credit Cost of Goods Sold.
b. If there had been underapplied
overhead the debits and credits would
be reversed.
Quick Check
−
under- and overapplied overhead
VI. Selected topics
A. Multiple predetermined overhead rates
i. The chapter discussion assumes that there is a
single predetermined overhead rate for an entire
factory called a plantwide overhead rate.
ii. In larger companies, multiple predetermined
overhead rates are often used. For example, each
production department may have its own
predetermined overhead rate.
iii. While using multiple predetermined overhead rates
is more complex, it is also more accurate because it
reflects differences across departments in how
overhead costs are incurred.
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B. Job-order costing in services companies
iv. Although our attention has focused upon
manufacturing applications, it bears re-emphasizing
that job-order costing is also used in services
industries.
1. For example, in a law firm, each client
represents a “job.” Legal forms and similar
inputs represent direct materials. The time
expended by attorneys represents direct
labor. The costs of secretaries, clerks, rent,
depreciation, and so forth, represent the
overhead.
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