Chapter 20 – International Trade
CHAPTER TWENTY
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter builds provides analysis of international trade and protectionism. First, it reviews
important facts about world trade. Second, it examines how international specialization based on
comparative advantage can mutually benefit participating nations. Third, supply and demand analysis is
used to help students understand prices and quantities of imports and exports. Fourth, the economic
impact of trade barriers and export subsidies are examined, followed by the arguments for protectionism.
Finally, the chapter discusses the creation of free-trade zones and multinational trade agreements as well
as the impacts of trade adjustment assistance and offshoring of jobs.
WHAT’S NEW
There are three new Quick Reviews in the chapter.
There are extensive data updates and some reworded of figure captions.
Beyond these changes the chapter is the same as the 19e.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Summarize the importance of international trade to the U.S. in terms of overall volume.
2. List the major imports and exports of the United States.
3. State two economic points that explain why nations trade.
4. Compute, when given appropriate data, the relative costs of producing two commodities in two
countries and determine which nation has the comparative advantage in each good.
5. Compute, when given appropriate data, the range for the terms of trade.
6. Calculate the potential gains from trade and specialization for each nation and the world when
given appropriate data.
7. State the economist’s case for free trade.
8. Explain the relationship between world prices and American export supply curve, and the
relationship between world prices and American import demand curve.
9. Explain international equilibrium price and quantity using a two-nation market model for import
demand and export supply.
10. Identify four types of trade barriers.
11. Describe the economic impact of tariffs, including both direct and indirect effects.
12. Contrast the economic impact of a quota with that of a tariff.
13. List seven arguments in favor of protectionist barriers, and critically evaluate each.
14. Identify the costs of protectionist policies and their effects on income distribution.
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
15. Describe the major provisions of the WTO, and explain why some protest against the WTO.
16. Explain how trade adjustment assistance is used to mitigate harmful effects of world trade.
17. Define and identify terms and concepts listed at the end of the chapter.
COMMENTS AND TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
1. Students can be made more aware of the extent of international trade with some simple exercises
such as the following: (a) list all the things that the student owns that were made in another
country, and name the countries; (b) list all of the foods eaten that day (week, month) that were
imported and name the sources; (c) list all of the friends and relatives you have who are working
for an export industry, or for a foreign-owned firm, or all the foreign-owned firms in your city or
town; (d) if you have several students who always wear baseball caps, have them look at the label.
Despite outward appearances, most caps are manufactured outside the U.S.
2. Numerical examples help students to understand the principle of comparative advantage. Using
state names instead of country names can help them to see the benefits from trade without the anti-
foreign bias that may exist initially.
3. Tell students to assume that tariffs and quotas are enacted only when national defense is affected by
the imported good. Then ask them to develop creative arguments to convince Congress that sugar,
scissors, textiles, alcoholic beverages, and other products now covered by tariffs or quotas might be
essential to national defense. In other words, they are to assume the role of lobbyists for these
industries.
4. The “Buy American” campaign is a good topic for class discussion, presentations, or short papers.
It is interesting to focus on the automobile industry to illustrate the various aspects to this issue.
One question might address the desirability of buying American in the first place. Another
question concerns the difficulty in defining what is “American” when it comes to automobiles and
many other products. For example, many “Japanese” vehicles are now manufactured in varying
degrees in the U.S., while many automobiles produced by the “Big Three” U.S. auto corporations
are manufactured outside this country. Which of these can be considered to be American? Robert
Reich’s “The Work of Nations” and Thomas Friedman’s “The Lexus and the Olive Tree” are good
books on the issue of globalization.
5. “International Economics,” an amusing but very informative comic book explanation of the theory
of comparative advantage and also the principles of foreign exchange can be ordered from the New
York Federal Reserve Bank’s Public Information Department. Up to 35 copies of the comic-book
explanations, four duplicating activity masters, and one teacher’s guide can be obtained free for
classroom use. (Write or call them at FRB New York, Public Information Dept., 33 Liberty Street,
New York, NY 10045, Ph. 212-791-6134.) The other Federal Reserve Banks also publish
educational booklets on international trade and exchange topics.
STUDENT STUMBLING BLOCK
The principle of comparative advantage is not an easy concept to grasp. Where absolute advantage is
involved, the principle is understandable, but it is tougher to grasp a situation such as that in the text
example where the U.S. has an absolute advantage in both beef and vegetable production. Work through
this example carefully with students. A short, soft-cover book, “The Choice” by Russell Roberts
illustrates the principle of comparative advantage in story form and does an excellent job. If you assign a
supplementary reading, this is recommended. Another idea is to demonstrate comparative advantage at
the personal level. A lawyer may be the best gardener and house painter in town (has an absolute
advantage). Still it is to the lawyer’s comparative advantage to specialize in law and hire gardeners and
painters.
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
LECTURE NOTES
I. Learning objectives – After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
A. List and discuss several key facts about international trade.
B. Define comparative advantage, and demonstrate how specialization and trade add to a
nation’s output.
C. Describe how differences between world prices and domestic prices prompt exports and
imports.
D. Analyze the economic effects of tariffs and quotas.
E. Analyze the validity of the most frequently presented arguments for protectionism.
F. Identify and explain the objectives of GATT, WTO, EU, Euro Zone, and NAFTA and discuss
offshoring and trade adjustment assistance.
II. Some Key Trade Facts
A. The U.S. has a trade deficit in goods (exports exceed imports); in 2012 the trade deficit in
goods was $735 billion.
B. The U.S. has a trade surplus in services ($196 billion in 2012).
C. The principal exports of the U.S. include chemicals, semiconductors, consumer durables,
aircraft, and agricultural products. Its main imports are petroleum, automobiles, computers,
household appliances, and metals.
D. The U.S. exports many of the “same” goods it imports. (Intra-industry trade)
E. Canada is the United States’ quantitatively most important trading partner (20% of U.S.
exports; 15% of U.S. imports).
F. The U.S. had a $315 billion trade deficit with China in 2012.
G. U.S. dependence on foreign oil is reflected in its $181 billion in imports from OPEC nations
in 2012 while exporting $82 billion in goods to those countries.
H. The U.S. leads the world in the volume of exports and imports. China, Germany, the U.S.,
Japan, and the Netherlands are the world’s top five exporters; U.S. exports of goods make up
about 8.1% of the world’s exports.
I. U.S. exports of goods and services (on a national income account basis) comprise 14% of
total U.S. output.
J. China is now a major trading country with $2.05 trillion in exports in 2012. South Korea,
Taiwan, and Singapore are also large traders.
K. International trade and finance link economies. Economic change in one part of the world
has repercussions for countries around the globe.
L. International trade and finance is often at the center of debates of U.S. economic policy.
III. The Economic Basis for Trade
A. International trade is a way nations can specialize, increase the productivity of their
resources, and realize a larger total output than they otherwise would.
B. Two points amplify the rationale for trade.
1. The distribution of economic resources among nations is uneven.
2. Efficient production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of
resources.
3. Products are differentiated among nations and some people prefer imports.
C. Interaction of these points can be illustrated.
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
1. China has a large labor force and can specialize in labor-intensive goods.
2. Australia has an abundance of land relative to human and capital resources and can
cheaply produce land intensive agricultural products. Mexico’s climate and unskilled
labor force means they can produce vegetables at a low cost.
3. Industrially advanced nations like the U.S. and Germany are in a position to produce
capital-intensive goods.
D. As national economies evolve, the resource base may be altered affecting the relative
efficiency with which nations can produce various goods and services.
IV. Comparative Advantage
A. With trade a country allocates more resources and produces a larger output in exporting
industries with fewer resources and output in the importing industries.
B. The basic principle of comparative advantage rests on differing opportunity costs of
producing various goods and services allows countries to specialize, increasing productivity
of resources and increasing output.
C. An example of comparative advantage is developed in Figure 20.1 and Table 20.1 comparing
an imaginary example using the U.S. and Mexico, where the labor forces of the two countries
are assumed to be of equal size.
1. Before trade, both nations are self-sufficient in beef and vegetables and produce at the
levels shown in Figure 20.1 on their PPCs. There are three important points to realize
with regard to their production possibilities curves:
a. Constant costs – the linear production possibilities “curves” assume constant
opportunity costs (implying resources are perfectly substitutable).
b. Different costs – Different resource mixes and technology generates different
opportunity costs between the two nations.
c. U.S. has the absolute advantage in both goods – given the assumption of equal sized
labor forces, Figure 20.1 illustrates a case where the U.S. is more productive (can
produce at lower cost) in producing both of the goods.
2. The principle of comparative advantage says that total output will be greatest when each
good is produced by the nation that has the lower opportunity cost. The U.S. has a
comparative advantage in beef production and should specialize in beef, and Mexico
should specialize in vegetables as one would expect.
3. Note in Table 20.1 that after specialization there will be more beef and more vegetables
in total than the totals before specialization. Total beef production rose from 26 units of
beef to 30 units of beef; vegetable production rose from 16 to 20.
4. Since each nation would like some of both goods, they will now have to trade. The terms
of trade will be limited by the original cost conditions in each country. For example, in
the U.S. 1 beef = 1 vegetable, so the U.S. will not give up more than 1 beef for each
vegetable. Similarly, in Mexico 1 beef = 2 vegetables, so Mexico will not trade more
than 2 vegetables for 1 beef. These two facts set the limits to the terms of trade. The rate
of exchange will be somewhere between 1 and 2 vegetables for each beef (Key Graph
20.2 illustrates these possibilities graphically). The actual terms of trade within these
limits will depend on each country’s negotiating power and world demand and supply
conditions for these products.
5. The gains from trade can be shown by selecting any trade ratio within the limits. The text
selects 1B = 1-1/2V. If the U.S. chooses to trade 10 tons of beef for 15 tons of
vegetables, both nations will be better off than they were when they were self-sufficient.
Specialization and trade have improved the productivity of their resources.
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
6. As a result of specialization and trade, both countries can have more of both products.
7. The above example assumes constant cost industries, which would not be the case in the
real world. Rather, as the U.S. begins to expand beef production, its relative costs will
rise and likewise with costs of vegetable production in Mexico. The effect of increasing
costs is that complete specialization will probably not occur with many products.
D. Consider This…A CPA and House Painter
1. In this example, the CPA is absolutely more productive than the house painter, but has a
higher opportunity cost for painting the house because of the wages sacrificed by painting
instead of accounting.
2. The best allocation of resources is for the CPA to hire a painter because the opportunity
cost is lower, similar to how countries determine the goods they will produce and the
ones that they will import.
E. The case for free trade is restated in the text: Through free trade, based on the principle of
comparative advantage, the world economy can achieve a more efficient allocation of
resources and a higher level of material well-being. Both countries gain more of both goods.
See Figure 20.2 (Key Graph)
1. One side benefit from free trade is that it promotes competition and deters monopoly
power.
2. Another side benefit may occur as specialization increases the production possibility
curve by raising the productivity of the resources devoted to producing certain goods.
3. Free trade links national interests, potentially breaking down national animosities.
F. Consider This…Misunderstanding the Gains from Trade
1. Counter to common myths the true gain from international trade is not an increase in
employment in the export sector, but an increase in total output.
2. International trade enables a country to have a total output that is greater than its PPC.
V. Supply and Demand Analysis of Exports and Imports
A. This analysis helps us understand how prices and quantities of exports and imports are
determined in world markets.
1. The equilibrium world price derives from the interaction of world supply and demand.
2. The equilibrium domestic price is determined by domestic supply and demand. It is the
price that would prevail in a closed economy with no international trade.
3. When economies are open to trade, differences between world and domestic prices form
the basis for exports or imports.
B. Supply and demand in the U.S.
1. Assume first that there are no trade barriers that Canada is the only other nation in the
world, that aluminum is the product in question, and that there are no international
transportation costs, to keep the analysis simple.
2. Figure 20.3a shows the domestic supply and demand curves for aluminum in the U.S.
with an equilibrium price of $1 per pound and an equilibrium quantity of 100 million
pounds.
3. If the world price exceeds $1, American firms will increase production and export the
excess output to the rest of the world (Canada).
a. If the world price is $1.25, then American producers will supply 50 million pounds
for export. (See Figure 20.3)
b. If the world price rises to $1.50, Americans will have 100 million pounds to export,
because domestic consumers will buy only 50 million pounds at that price.
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
c. The American export supply curve is found in Figure 20.3b by plotting the domestic
surpluses occurring at world prices above the $1 domestic equilibrium price. When
world prices rise relative to American domestic prices, U.S. exports rise.
4. U.S. import demand will be shown by the Figure 20.3b plot of the excess domestic
demand created if prices fall below the $1 domestic equilibrium price. The downsloping
curve shows the amount of aluminum imported by the U.S. at prices below the $1
American domestic price. When world prices fall relative to domestic prices, American
imports rise.
C. Supply and demand of aluminum in Canada can be depicted in a similar manner, as shown in
Figure 20.4. The prices have been converted into U.S. dollar equivalents using the exchange
rate mechanism discussed in Chapter 21 (next chapter).
1. Canada’s import demand curve represents domestic shortages in Canada when the world
price falls below the $.75 domestic Canadian price.
2. Canada’s export supply curve represents domestic surpluses in Canada when the world
price is above the $.75 Canadian domestic price.
D. Determination of the equilibrium world price, of exports and imports is illustrated in Figure
20.5.
1. Equilibrium occurs in this two-nation model where one nation’s import demand curve
intersects another nation’s export supply curve. In this example, this occurs at a price of
$.88.
2. At the $.88 world price, the domestic prices in both Canada and the U.S. will also be
$.88.
E. Canada will export aluminum to gain earnings to buy other goods, such as computer
software, that are made in the United States. These exports enable Canadians to acquire
imports that have greater value to them than exported aluminum. Otherwise, they would be
willing to pay more than $.88 per pound for aluminum.
VI. Trade Barriers and Export Subsidies
A. Types of barriers:
1. Tariffs are excise taxes on imports and may be used for revenue purposes, or more
commonly as protective tariffs that protect domestic producers from foreign competition
by raising import prices.
2. Import quotas specify the maximum amounts of imports allowed in a certain period of
time. Low import quotas may be a more effective protective device than tariffs, which do
not limit the amount of goods entering a country.
3. Nontariff barriers (NTB) refer to licensing requirements, unreasonable standards, or
bureaucratic red tape in customs procedures.
4. Voluntary export restrictions (VER) are agreements by foreign firms to “voluntarily”
limit their exports to a particular country. Japan has voluntary limits on its auto exports
to the United States.
5. Export subsidies lower production costs and enable producers to charge lower prices and
sell more exports. Subsidies are provided by government.
B. The economic impact of tariffs is shown in Figure 20.6. With free trade, consumption will
take place at the world price Pw, and domestic production will be 0a with imports making up
the difference, ad. There are 4 direct effects.
1. When the tariff is imposed, domestic consumption declines to 0c as the price rises to Pt.
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
2. Domestic production will rise to 0b because the price has risen.
3. Imports fall to bc from ad.
4. Government tariff revenue will represent a transfer of income from consumers to
government.
5. One indirect effect also may occur in that relatively inefficient industries are expanding
and relatively efficient industries abroad have been made to contract.
C. The economic impact of quotas is similar to tariffs, but worse because no revenue is
generated for the government; the higher price results in more revenue per unit for the foreign
producer. After the quota, the price will rise to Pt as with the tariff, but the entire amount of
revenue generated by the higher price will go to the foreign and domestic producers
supplying the product at price Pt. Also, there is no possibility for consumers to obtain more
than the allowed quota, even at higher prices.
VII. The Case for Protection: A Critical Review
A. Military self-sufficiency may be a valid political-economic argument for protecting industries
that are critical to national defense. The argument is that the country cannot be dependent on
other countries for its national defense. However, the problem with this rationale is that
nearly every industry is critical in one way or another. It is difficult to select strategic
industries to protect. Also, most goods are produced in many places, so dependence on one
nation is not likely.
B. Diversification for stability may be a legitimate reason for a nation to protect certain
industries until they become viable. For example, Saudi Arabia may not always be able to
depend on oil exports; similarly for Cuba on sugar exports. They need to develop other
industries.
1. This argument does not apply to the U.S. or other diversified economies.
2. The economic costs of diversification may be great and not worth the protection.
C. The infant-industry argument is similar to the diversification argument for protection. New
industries allegedly may need “temporary” protection to gain productive efficiency. But
qualifications must be noted.
1. It is difficult to determine which industries are the best to protect.
2. Protection may persist after industrial maturity is realized.
3. Direct subsidies may be preferable to international protection.
D. Protection against “dumping” is another argument for tariffs when nations “dump” excess
products onto U.S. markets at below cost.
1. These firms may be trying to drive out U.S. competition.
2. Dumping can be a form of price discrimination.
3. Dumping is an “unfair trade practice” and is prohibited under U.S. trade law. The
Federal government has the right to impose antidumping duties (tariffs) on the goods that
were “dumped,” but it may be difficult to prove the below-cost sales in the first place.
E. Increasing domestic employment is the most popular argument for protection, but there are
important shortcomings associated with this reasoning.
1. Imports may eliminate some jobs, but they create others in the sales and service
industries for these products.
2. The fallacy of composition applies here. The imports of one nation are the exports of
another. By achieving short-term employment goals at home, the trading partner may be
made weaker and less able to buy the protectionist nation’s products.
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
3. Retaliation is a risk that occurred in the 1930s when high tariffs were imposed by the
U.S. Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930. Protectionism against American goods will hurt
our export industries. Such trade wars still erupt today although the WTO helps to
eliminate the problem.
4. Long-run feedbacks relate to the fact that continued excess of exports over imports leads
to a shortage of dollars abroad, which foreigners need to purchase more American goods
and services; a nation must import in order to export.
F. Protection is said to be needed against the competition from cheap foreign labor. However,
this argument is not valid. It is mutually beneficial for rich and poor to trade with one
another. By not trading, we don’t raise our living standards at all, but we will decrease them
by shifting labor into inefficient areas where the foreign labor could have produced the items
more efficiently.
VIII. Multilateral Trade Agreements and Free-Trade Zones
A. Inefficiencies of protectionism have led nations to seek ways to promote free trade.
B. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
1. Based on 3 principles:
a. Equal, nondiscriminatory trade treatment for all member nations.
b. Decrease tariffs through multilateral negotiation.
c. Eliminate import quotas.
2. In 1947, GATT was signed by 23 nations, including the U.S.
3. The last round of negotiations was the Uruguay round where 123 nations reached a new
agreement for liberalizing trade to be implemented between 1995 and 2005.
C. World Trade Organization (WTO)
1. In 2010, there were 153 nations who belonged to the WTO.
2. The ninth and latest round of negotiations (the Doha Round) started in Doha, Qatar, in
late 2001. This round has targeted further tariff and quota reductions, as well as
reductions in agricultural subsidies that distort the pattern of trade.
3. The WTO has become a protest target of groups who are against various aspects of
globalization.
D. The European Union
1. To promote free trade, countries have created free-trade zones. The European Union was
first started as the Common Market in 1958. In 2003, the EU included 15 nations and has
now grown to 27 nations today.
2. Within the EU, tariffs and quotas have been removed on almost all traded goods among
member nations and have the same trade barriers for imports into the EU.
3. Led to increased regional specialization, greater productivity, greater output, and faster
economic growth, creating large markets for producers contributing to lower costs.
4. In 2000, the Euro Zone was established with 16 members of the EU using a common
currency further increasing trade.
E. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
1. Created a free-trade zone between Mexico, the U.S., and Canada in 1993 eliminating
trade barriers on most goods.
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
2. There was a concern that NAFTA would lead to large reductions in employment in the
U.S. because firms would move to Mexico where there is less regulation. Since NAFTA,
employment in the U.S. has increased by more than 20 million.
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
IX. Trade Adjustment Assistance
A. With increased free trade, there are some industries that will suffer and as a result individuals
within those industries will become unemployed. To help ease the pain of greater free trade,
in 2002 the Trade Adjustment Assistance Act was passed.
B. To qualify for trade adjustment assistance, the workers must participate in job searches,
training programs, or remedial education and the workers were displaced because of imports
or the job moved over seas. Assistance consists of:
1. Unemployment benefits for up to 78 weeks.
2. Relocation allowances to ease the cost of relocating for a job.
3. Refundable tax credits for health insurance.
C. Critics of trade adjustment assistance argue that jobs lost due to imports is such a small
percentage of total jobs lost that it’s not fair that these workers receive special benefits while
other displaced workers do not.
X. Offshoring of Jobs
A. Offshoring means that work that was previously performed by Americans is now shifted
overseas and completed by foreign workers. With improvements in technology, offshoring
has become much more common.
B. With the offshoring of jobs, some of the revenue of producing the good now goes to foreign
countries.
C. Although offshoring is often highly criticized, it is another form of comparative advantage
and is beneficial for all countries. Offshoring allows producers to specialize in the specific
steps in the production process.
D. Offshoring often leads to increased demand for complementary goods and jobs within the
U.S. and can help a firm to remain internationally competitive with lower costs.
XI. LAST WORD: Petition of the Candlemakers, 1845
A. This satirical essay was written by French Economist Frederic Bastiat (1801-1850) to expose
the fallacy of protectionism.
B. The candlemakers’ petition the government for relief from the “foreign” competition of the
Sun, arguing that the sun provides light at lower prices than which the candlemakers can
offer. The petition further argues that shutting out all natural light will stimulate
industries that support the candle industry.
C. Taking the logical argument to absurd conclusions helped undermine protectionist advocates
in France.
QUIZ
1. A nation’s import demand curve for a specific product:
A. is upsloping.
B. shows the amount of the product it will import at prices below its domestic price.
C. lies above its export supply curve for the product.
D. depends on domestic demand for the product, but not on domestic supply.
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
2. The organization created to oversee the provisions of multilateral trade agreements, resolve
disputes under the international trade rules, and meet periodically to consider further trade
liberalization is called the:
A. International Monetary Fund (IMF).
B. World Trade Organization (WTO).
C. Common Market Organization (CMO).
D. International Trade Commission (ITC).
3. In a two-nation model, the equilibrium world price will occur where:
A. one nation’s export supply curve intersects the other nation’s import demand curve.
B. exports are exactly twice the level of imports.
C. both nations’ export supply curves are horizontal.
D. both nations’ import demand curves are vertical.
4. Dumping of goods abroad:
A. constitutes a general case for permanent tariffs.
B. may be part of a firm’s price discrimination strategy.
C. may be part of a nation’s strategy to rectify its trade deficit.
D. drives up prices of the dumped goods.
5. A basic assumption of the two-nation production possibilities curves that are straight lines is that:
A. Opportunity costs are constant
B. Opportunity costs are increasing
C. Each nation is operating at a point inside its production possibilities curve
D. Each nation is operating at a point outside its production possibilities curve
6. An excise tax that is applied to imported products which are not produced domestically is a(n):
A. Protective tariff
B. Revenue tariff
C. Import quota
D. Nontariff barrier
7. Which is a valid counterargument to the call for higher tariffs to save U.S. jobs?
A. The need to protect U.S. workers from the dumping of foreign products
B. Strategic trade policy calls for equal treatment of all trading nations so that they will have the
same competitive conditions
C. U.S. firms and workers must be protected from the ruinous competition of nations where
wages for workers are low
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Chapter 20 – International Trade
D. Imports may eliminate some U.S. jobs, but they create others, so they may have little or no
effect on employment
8. In the United States, exports of goods and services account for about what percentage of GDP
(total output)?
A. 6 percent
B. 13 percent
C. 18 percent
D. 24 percent
9. If there is no comparative advantage between two countries:
A. One country must be more productive in producing all goods than the other
B. The benefits resulting from trade are increased
C. There are no gains from specialization and trade
D. Each country should specialize in the production of a particular commodity
10. Import quotas:
A. Have the same effect on producers as export subsidies
B. Can be considered to be a form of voluntary export restraints
C. Require agreement between importing and exporting nations
D. Set the number of units of a product that can be imported
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