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Chapter 2
Managing Stress and Time
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Managing stress and time management are critical not only for employee well-being but also for
performance and organizational effectiveness. Unmanaged stress costs employers billions of
dollars each year. This chapter presents models of stress that focus on the primary sources of
stress and how to combat them. Additionally, as time pressures are a major source of stress, the
chapter presents strategies for effective time management.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
KNOWING OBJECTIVES
1. Know the most common causes of stress and identify effective stress management
interventions for them
2. Identify and describe evidence for effective stress management interventions
3. Recognize the most common time management traps and the effective time management
techniques to avoid them
4. Identify the characteristics of workplace cultures that reduce stress while retaining high
performance
DOING OBJECTIVES
1. Diagnose your own (and a colleague’s) sources of stress and apply evidence-based
strategies to manage stress
2. Adapt research-supported strategies to minimize choking in pressure situations
3. Implement effective time management techniques
4. Facilitate workplace characteristics that promote high performance, health, and low stress
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KEY STUDENT QUESTIONS
Students will approach this chapter asking these questions:
1. What are problems associated with excessive stress?
2. What can organizations do to minimize stress while also encouraging high
performance? And what can I do to personally minimize my stress and better
manage my time?
In answering these questions, the instructor might start with what students already know about
stress from their own personal experiences. Ask students to list their top 5 stressors (the things
injuries, and healthcare costs.
There are many stress management techniques that people employ – the instructor may wish to
have students create a list of healthy (e.g., exercise) and unhealthy strategies (drinking alcohol)
for managing stress. The list could be further divided into primary prevention strategies which
week. Students should write a report detailing the effectiveness of the action plan and
recommend any modifications for the future.
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction
A. Definitions
A. Stress = the physiological and psychological states of arousal (e.g., rapid heartbeat,
sweating, anxiety) activated when we encounter a stressor
B. Strains = outcomes (usually long-term) of stress (e.g., tension headaches, depression
II. Personal and organizational consequences of stress
A. Managers under stress have been shown to selectively perceive information, fixate on
single solutions to problems, revert to old habits to cope with current situations, show
less creativity, and overestimate how fast time is passing.
B. Medical researchers estimate that 50 – 70 % of disease and illness are in part due to
long-term stress (e.g., heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, and lung disease).
C. Costs of stress are estimated to be as high as $300 billion annually in U.S.
D. Some stress is good
A. Eustress = a controlled or optimal level of stress that gives us our competitive edge
and enhances performance
B. Research shows that a moderate amount of stress can actually protect health in some
ways
III. Stress is personal: Individual differences and their relationship to stress
A. Transactional theory suggests that the negative effects of stress are a function of the
interaction between the person and the environment
1. Primary appraisal = the person examines the potential stressor and determines
person assesses their capabilities to handle the stressor
B. Type A behavior pattern
1. First identified by cardiologists, Friedman and Rosenbaum in the 1950’s
2. Describes a cluster of characteristics: perfectionism, impatience, ambitiousness,
hostility, and time urgency
3. The hostility component of Type A is related to cardiovascular heart disease
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C. Locus of control
1. The extent to which people believe they control their own environments
a. Internal locus of control = belief that we control our own lives
b. External locus of control = belief that things outside of us control our lives
2. In general having an internal locus of control is beneficial
3. However, too strong an internal locus of control may erroneously think they can
control things they cannot and put themselves in danger
D. Self-efficacy
1. A personal assessment of one’s own ability to execute the necessary actions to
handle a particular situation
2. In general, higher self-efficacy is beneficial – the belief that one can succeed is
motivating and leads to persistence in the face of obstacles
IV. Common sources and causes of stress
A. Traumatic events versus daily hassles
A. Both traumatic events (e.g., divorce, death of loved one, layoff) and daily hassles
(e.g., computer crash, long commute, deadlines) are stressful
B. Research shows we tend to overestimate the effects of traumatic events and
underestimate the effects of daily hassles
C. Daily hassles are highly related to mood, fatigue, and perceived workload
B. Role conflict and role ambiguity
A. All of us have numerous roles (e.g., employee, student, daughter/son, spouse, friend,
volunteer, pet owner)
B. Role theory examines how these roles relate to stress
C. Role ambiguity = occurs when people are not sure what their roles are or how to
fulfill them
D. Role conflict = occurs when our multiple roles conflict with each other
1. Work-family conflict = a form of interrole conflict when roles of work and family
E. Research on role theory shows that role ambiguity, role conflict, and work-family
conflict are associated with stress and worse well-being
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C. Exhaustion of resources and burnout
A. Conservation of resources (COR) is a model suggesting that stress results from 3
possible threats to our resources
1. The threat of losing a personal resource
2. The actual net loss of a personal resource
3. The lack of resource gain following investment of other personal resources
B. Burnout is a syndrome that can occur after prolonged stress that has exceeded ones
resources to address
C. 3 components of burnout
3. Reduced personal accomplishment = feeling one’s work no longer matters
D. Research on burnout
1. Can occur in any job (although may occur more in “helping” professions)
2. More educated workers are more prone to burnout
3. Married employees show less burnout than single employees
D. Emotional labor
A. Emotional labor = the process of regulating emotions and expressions for the benefit
or organizational goals
1. Surface acting = managing one’s observable expressions (e.g., smiling at a
customer even when irritated)
2. Deep acting = managing one’s actual emotions to be consistent with what is
needed on the job
B. Research on emotional labor
1. Emotional labor can occur in any job but may be more common in helping
professions or jobs requiring extensive interactions with others
2. Emotional labor is related to stress, burnout, job dissatisfaction, and turnover
intentions
E. High demands and low control
A. Demand-control model of stress shows that stress is especially likely when people
simultaneously experience high demands and low control
D. Social support may help buffer the negative effects of high demands and low control
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V. The importance of matching strategies with causes
A. Different people and types of stressors call for different coping strategies
B. Primary prevention strategies = prevent stress by removing the stressor or cause of the
stress
A. Enhancing control and predictability
B. Social connectedness – having support helps us manage stressors
4. Appraisal support = feedback that develops someone else’s self-esteem
C. Avoiding choking
A. Choking = suffering from performance decrements under pressure circumstances
B. Two antidotes for choking
D. Coping strategies = secondary interventions that do not remove the stressor but try to
minimize its negative effects (e.g., exercise, meditation)
A. Psychological Hardiness = the ability to remain psychologically stable and healthy in
the face of significant stress.
1. Four factors distinguish those with psychological hardiness:
a. Physical fitness: People who are fit are less likely to be ill and are more
resilient to stress
b. Commitment = the ability to persevere through hard times, and a sense of
connection beyond a single domain
c. Control: Psychologically hardy people gain control of difficult situations by
taking action, and intentionally maintain a positive outlook.
d. Challenge: Seeing problems as challenges rather than a threats makes it easier
to look for (and find) solutions
E. Dealing with Stress in the Moment
A. Muscle relaxation: Tense then relax all major muscle groups starting with feet and
working up to head
B. Deep breathing: Take deep, slow breaths from diaphragm several times to activate the
relaxation side of the autonomic nervous system
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C. Mood repair: Learn what puts you in a positive mood and use it when experiencing
stress
VI. Managing Time
A. Start With Written Goals
1. Goals that are written down are more concrete and specific, and therefore more
effective, than unwritten goals.
2. Goals should be reviewed and prioritized
B. Follow the 80/20 Rule
1. Roughly 80% of the value comes from 20% of the tasks you perform.
2. Analyze which tasks make up the most important 20% for you and focus on them.
C. Use the Time Management Matrix
1. Categorize activities based on importance and urgency
2. Urgent activities demand immediate attention
3. Important activities are tied to your goals and produce a desired result
D. Just DON’T Do It – Learn to Say “No”
1. If you say no to less important tasks, you will be able to devote yourself fully to
more important tasks.
2. Examples of ways to say no:
E. Plan the Work, Then Work the Plan
1. Make good lists for effective prioritization
2. Basics of Good Lists
a. Create/review them every day, ideally at the same consistent time
b. Keep them visible
c. Use them as a guide to action
d. Keep all to-do items together, not on separate scraps of paper.
e. Use the ABC method for prioritizing items – A, high; B, medium; C, low.
F. Ask “What’s the Next Action?”
1. The next action is the next physical, visible activity that needs to be done to move
toward completion
2. Know what the next action is and write it down
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G. Know Yourself and Your Time Use
1. Examine your time usage and identify problem areas
2. Know when you work best:
a. Internal prime time – the time of day when we typically work best
b. External prime time – the time of day when it is best to attend to other people
H. Fight Procrastination
2. The Swiss Cheese Method
a. Poke small holes in a big project – pick small tasks and use them to get started
on a project when you are procrastinating
I. The 2-Minute Rule
1. Any time demand that will take less than 2 minutes should be done now
2. Quick tasks take longer to categorize than to get done
VII. Workplace cultures that foster high performance with lower stress
A. Frequent and open communication
1. Share information to reduce uncertainty
2. Clearly define employee roles and responsibilities
B. Employee participation
1. Give workers opportunities to participate in decisions that affect them
2. Consult employees about schedules and work issues
C. Incentives for work-life balance
1. Praise good work performance
2. Provide opportunities for development
D. Cultivate a friendly social climate
1. Provide opportunities for social interaction between employees
2. Establish zero-tolerance policy for harassment
CASES
Stress Reduction as a Business Strategy
The case discusses massive layoffs and the stresses encountered not only to people who lost their
jobs but also to the “layoff survivors.” Many companies have Employee Assistance Programs
(EAPs) as part of their benefits package. EAPs provide services to employees by offering
training sessions and counseling during times of stress (e.g., layoffs, alcohol or drug abuse,
divorce, relationship problems).
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The case poses questions to students about whether they or their family or friends have
have their own difficulties. Organizations that must lay off employees should devote resources to
help minimize the traumatic effects on layoff survivors. If these issues are ignored, serious
morale and productivity problems may result.
Possible answers to “Case Concluded” discussion questions.
1. Answers will vary. Some of the most damaging contemporary causes of stress today
might be interpersonal issues, stresses causes by the bad economy, or stress due to
technological advances. Although the physiological and psychological experience of
stress today might be quite similar to that experienced by people in the past, the nature of
stressors has undoubtedly changed over time. Our distant ancestors were likely to
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2. A manager should first try to do some research and investigation into the nature of the
stress that employees are experiencing. For example, what are the causes of the stress?
How many employees are experiencing stress because of these causes? If there is a way
3. Yes, there is evidence that stress reduction programs work. Some programs might work
better for certain individuals and stressors, however. If an employee is stressed because
4. EAPs are reactive in that they treat stress that has already occurred. A more proactive
approach would be a “primary prevention” strategy that would attempt to eliminate or
Creating a Low-Stress Happy Workplace: SAS, Google, and Other Companies That Take it
Seriously
Possible answers to case questions:
1. Employers may be motivated to invest in employee perks for a variety of reasons. One set
of reasons is practical and based in financial motives: employee benefits might help with
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2. The best answer is probably “it depends.” It is true that some research shows that the
happy worker is the productive worker. But it is also true that there are many factors that
3. Responses will vary. Some students might feel that companies that are more frugal with
benefits might be a better investment choice. The instructor might wish to point out
4. While many of the perks described in the case are indeed expensive, there are lower cost
ways to provide perks. For example, telecommuting, like described at Accenture, could
so that employees feel like they matter and have a voice in their jobs.
“MANAGE WHAT” SCENARIOS
The following sections contain suggested debriefs for each of the “Manage What” scenarios in
this chapter.
1. Getting a Priority Done under Stress
Debrief is found at the end of the chapter within the text.
2. Overcoming the Two Biggest Time Management Traps
Debrief is found at the end of the chapter within the text.
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3. Minimizing Your Chances of Choking in a Pressure Situation
Summary:
Students are asked to imagine that they are one of three finalists for a job that they really want.
The selection process involves a panel interview, a presentation, and a leaderless group
discussion. Because of the very high pressure involved in this situation, students might naturally
be concerned about choking under the pressure. Fortunately, there are steps that can be taken to
prevent choking. Students are asked to describe these steps and say what they would do to
prevent choking.
Debrief:
“Choking” is the all-too-common phenomenon in which someone suffers performance
decrements in a pressure situation. Choking does not only happen to the inexperienced novice
but can happen to professionals as well. Before understanding how to prevent choking, it is
Fortunately, research shows that there are at least a couple of good options to help us refocus our
attention and prevent feelings of anxiety in pressure situation. First, you can try “pressure
practice” which is to practice the behavior in a pressure situation that would be similar to the
practice under more realistic conditions.
4. Making Changes in a Workplace That Lower Stress and Enhance (not lower) Productivity
Debrief is found at the end of the chapter within the text.
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MANAGEMENT LIVE
2.1 Choking Under Stress: It Even Happens to Superstars
As discussed in “Manage This” 2.3 of this chapter, “choking” is a performance decrement that
occurs when someone is in a high pressure situation. The “Manage this” scenario asks students to
identify strategies for minimizing the likelihood of choking. The instructor might also wish to
ask students to recall a time when they choked under pressure. What happened and could it have
been prevented?
The textbook gives the example from professional soccer in which penalty kicks that are shot to
win are 92% successful versus shots to tie (and avoid defeat) which are only 60% successful.
Clearly, the kicking ability of the player does not change between these situations, rather it is
something psychological going on that is more problematic for the player who is kicking to
avoid defeat rather than to win. Although both are high pressure situations, the thought of being
the player that wins the game for the team is arguably a “good” kind of pressure while the
thought of being the player that loses the game for the team is a “bad” kind of pressure.
The difference between these two frames of mind relate to Higgin’s (1997) regulatory focus
theory. According to this theory, our efforts can be driven by two very different kinds of focuses.
The first is an approach or “promotion-focused” orientation and the second is an avoidance or
“prevention–focused” orientation. When people are prevention-focused their emphasis is on
avoiding losses and negatives; as such, they tend to view goals as “oughts” and pursue strategies
of vigilance so to be on the lookout for negatives (Higgins, 1997). In contrast, when people are
promotion-focused, their emphasis is on gains and accomplishments; goals are viewed as
“ideals” and are pursued with eagerness (Higgins, 1997).
The instructor might have students describe a time when they felt that they had a promotion-
focused orientation to a situation and another time when they felt they had a prevention-focused
orientation to a situation.
Discussion questions:
1. Why do you think you had a promotion-focused (or prevention-focused) orientation in
that situation?
2. What was the outcome? Did you perform well? Poorly? Why?
3. Do you think choking is more likely in a prevention-focused orientation? Why or why
not?
4. Do you think there are situations when it is beneficial to have a prevention-focused
orientation? If so, what might those situations be?
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2.2 Executive Fitness and Performance
An abundance of research demonstrates the benefits of engaging in exercise. Exercise reduces
the risk for illness and diseases like diabetes, cancer, and hypertension. Exercise also can help
reduce stress and can even help people perform better in their jobs and in school. As stated in the
textbook, many executives are dedicated to physical activity; additionally, the two most recent
American Presidents, George W. Bush and Barack Obama are exercise devotees. Even though
many people believe they are too busy to engage in exercise, these leaders realize that time spent
in exercise is more than recouped by the benefits in performance, health, and stress reduction.
Many leaders are not only concerned with their own fitness but the fitness of their employees.
satisfaction, reduced employee stress, increased performance, and lower health care costs.
Of relevance to students is research showing a positive relationship between physical activity
and academic performance (e.g., California Department of Education, 2002); in fact, when a
substantial amount of the school day is devoted to physical activity, students perform just as well
if not better than students who do not get this extra time spent exercising (e.g., Shephard, 1997).
The instructor might wish to initiate a class discussion about the benefits of exercise and assess
students’ beliefs about the importance of exercise for not only physical health but also mental
such records, students could assess the benefits of exercise and see if there are any patterns
between exercise habits and academic success in their own lives.
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2.3 Never Check Email in the Morning – and Other Surprising Time Savers
This Management Live recommends several time-saving strategies that might be surprising or
counterintuitive to students: 1) don’t check email first thing; 2) avoid the urge to multitask; 3)
shorten your workday; 4) take a break; 5) don’t do chores when big deadlines loom; and 6)
always tackle the most important job first, though it might be the most difficult and time
consuming.
The instructor can assign students to identify at least two or three of these strategies that they
routinely violate. Students could then actively attempt to follow the strategies for the following
week and even set goals and incentives for continuing to follow the strategy.
In addition to avoiding time-management traps, students should think about their internal
and external prime times through the week. Each of us has both external and internal
mail, review yesterday’s unanswered emails and talk to colleagues and associates. It would be
much better to save such routine tasks for non-prime hours. Students often schedule their classes
during their internal prime time when it would be better used for study and completion of
deliverables.
In terms of what you would not want to do (common traps) there are some very frequent and
persistent patterns. For example, people lack goal clarity (rarely write goals down) and thus
stress distracts them into neglecting true high-priority work in favor of seemingly urgent tasks.
Similarly, it is seductive to do lots of “C” priority tasks before embarking on “A” priority tasks
and use personal prime time for low priority tasks.
Discussion questions:
1. Which strategies did you find were most effective in helping you use your time more
effectively?
2. Which strategies were the hardest for you to implement and why? Would you continue to
try these strategies?
3. What are other strategies that you have found help you avoid your own personal time
traps?
4. Do you think the use of technology (e.g., smart phones, email) save us time or only cause
more problems with time management? Explain your answer.
5. If you had to pick the two hours of the day when you think most clearly, which
would you pick? The two hours you select are probably your internal prime time
and you should aim to save all of that time for high-priority projects.
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2.4 Is This Advice Worth $250,000.00?
This Management Live shares the story of advice from a consultant given to Bethelehem Steel
executive Charles Schwab. The advice – which Schwab paid $35,000 for (the equivalent of
$250,000.00 today) – was to make a daily list of 6 things that must be accomplished. The items
should be prioritized by importance and completed in order. Although this advice might sound
might wish to ask students to discuss why Schwab decided to pay such a generous award to the
consultant. In other words, why did Schwab think this advice was worth the modern day
equivalent of $250,000.00?
TOOLKITS
2.1 Type A Personality Assessment
Ask students to read the section in the textbook about Type A Personality and then ask them to
think about whether they think the Type A profile fits them or not. Then have students complete
the Type A Personality assessment and see if their score reaffirms their initial self-assessment of
may be prone to procrastination or fail to reach their potential if their stress level is too low.
2.2 Locus of Control
Ask students to read the section in the textbook about Locus of Control and ask them to think
about whether they think they have a predominately internal or external locus of control.
Students should then take the Locus of Control assessment and compare to their initial self-
best manage their own predisposition.
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2.3 What are the Sources of YOUR stress: Starting a stress journal
Ask students to keep a daily log of their stressors, stress levels, and coping strategies for one or
two weeks. Instructors might wish to give specific guidelines for the journal such as creating a
column for the stressor (i.e., what was the cause of the stress), another column for stress
park). Because some of the stressors might be personal experiences that the student might wish
to keep private, the instructor might ask students to share only one of their entries that they feel
comfortable revealing in a group or class discussion.
Discussion questions:
1. Did you notice any patterns in the types of stressors in your life? (i.e., are they mostly of
an interpersonal nature or are they related to your job or school?)
2. Did you notice any patterns in your coping responses?
3. What coping responses did you find are most effective for you in terms of resolving your
stress or removing the stressor? Are these the coping strategies you most commonly use?
4. If you tried a new coping strategy, how did it work and would you continue to use this
coping strategy?
2.4 Writing Effective To-Do Lists
Assign students to create a to-do list for the following week using the guidelines provided in the
text. Then check back in one week to assess the effectiveness of the lists and what they could do
is clearly beneficial to lacking such goals.
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Discussion questions:
1. What kind of a list did you use? (Pencil and paper? On your calendar? On your phone
or other electronic device?) Would you use this type of list again or change to
something else? Why?
2. What part of your list got accomplished and what part did not? If there were things
you did not get done that you had hoped to, what went wrong? Did you fail to
prioritize the tasks appropriately? Did you underestimate the amount of time certain
tasks would take? Did you procrastinate?
3. What advantages did you find to having a list rather than just “winging it”?
4. Is list-making something you would incorporate into your everyday life? Why or
why not?
2.5 Getting Yourself Organized: A Quick Primer
Ask students to use the TRAF system (mail sorting – Toss, Refer, Act, File) for one week.
Discuss the outcomes of the experiment in class. This is a good way to illustrate “small wins”
with regard to behavioral change.
Discussion Questions:
1. What impact did using the system have on your work environment?
2. What was the hardest part of using the system? The easiest?
3. Would you recommend this system to others? Why or why not?