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Instructor Resources for Chapter 5
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Chapter Outline
Opening scenario: Words Can Heal Old Wounds
I. The Nature of Language
a. Language is symbolic.
b. Language is arbitrary (mostly).
c. Language is governed by rules.
d. Language has layers of meaning.
i. The semantic triangle
ii. Loaded language
e. Language varies in clarity.
f. Language is bound by context and culture.
Learn it, apply it, reflect on it
II. Appreciating the Power of Words
a. Naming defines and differentiates us.
i. Naming and identity
ii. Naming practices
b. We use words to persuade.
i. Appealing to ethos
ii. Appealing to pathos
iii. Appealing to logos
c. Credibility empowers us.
i. Clichés
ii. Dialects
iii. Equivocation
iv. Weasel words
v. Allness statements
vi. Choosing credible language
d. Language expresses affection and intimacy.
e. Words provide comfort and healing.
i. Using language to comfort other people
ii. Using language to comfort ourselves
Learn it, apply it, reflect on it
III. The Use and Abuse of Language
a. Humor: what’s so funny?
b. Euphemisms: soft talk
c. Slang: the language of co-cultures
d. Defamation: harmful words
e. Profanity: offensive language
f. Hate speech: profanity with a hurtful purpose
Learn it, apply it, reflect on it
IV. Creating a Positive Communication Climate
a. Use confirming messages and minimize disconfirming messages.
b. Avoid making others defensive.
c. Provide effective feedback.
i. Non-evaluative feedback
ii. Evaluative feedback
d. Own your thoughts and feelings.
e. Separate opinions from factual claims.
f. Create positive climates in electronically mediated communication.
Learn it, apply it, reflect on it
In-text boxes:
a. At a Glance: Rules of language
b. Fact or Fiction? Texting reduces the ability to use language properly.
c. Got Skills? Appealing to ethos
d. Communication/Light Side: Celebrating life: Facebook tribute pages
e. Assess Your Skills: How well can you spot a confirming message?
f. Got Skills? I-statements
Key Terms
ambiguous language
communication climate
confirming message
connotative meaning
credibility
defamation
defensiveness
denotative meaning
disconfirming message
ethos
euphemism
evaluative feedback
hate speech
I-statement
language
libel
loaded language
logos
non-evaluative feedback
onomatopoeia
pathos
profanity
reason
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
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slander
slang supportiveness
you-statement
Definitions for Key Terms
ambiguous language: language having more than one possible meaning
communication climate: the emotional tone of a relationship
confirming messages: behavior that indicates how much we value another person
connotative meaning: a word’s implied or secondary meaning, in addition to its literal meaning
credibility: the extent to which others find someone’s words and actions trustworthy
defamation: language that harms a person’s reputation or image
defensiveness: excessive concern with guarding oneself against the threat of criticism
denotative meaning: a word’s literal meaning or dictionary definition
disconfirming messages: behavior that imply a lack of regard for another person
ethos: a speaker’s respectability, trustworthiness, and moral character
euphemism: a vague, mild expression that symbolizes something more blunt or harsh
evaluative feedback: a reply that offers an assessment of what the speaker has said or done
hate speech: a form of profanity meant to degrade, intimidate, or dehumanize groups of people
I-statement: a statement that claims ownership of one’s thoughts or feelings
language: a structured system of symbols used for communicating meaning
libel: a defamatory statement made in print or some other fixed medium
loaded language: terms that carry strongly positive or strongly negative connotations
logos: listeners’ ability to reason
non-evaluative feedback: a reply that withholds assessment of what the speaker has said or done
onomatopoeia: a word formed by imitating the sound associated with its meaning
pathos: listeners’ emotions
profanity: a form of language considered vulgar, rude, or obscene in the context in which
it is used
reason: to make judgments about the world based on evidence rather than emotion or intuition
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: the idea that language influences the ways that members of a culture see
and think about the world
slander: a defamatory statement made aloud
slang: informal, unconventional words that are often understood only by others in a particular
subculture
supportiveness: a person’s feeling of assurance that others care about and will protect him or her
you-statement: a statement that shifts responsibility for one’s own thoughts or feelings to the
listener
Discussion Questions
• What do you think of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? What examples can you think of that
illustrate how your language reflects your culture’s behaviors and attitude?
• In what ways does American Sign Language constitute verbal communication? In what ways
is it nonverbal?
• What perceptions do you have of women who retain their own last names when they marry?
How about women who take their husbands’ name? How about women who take hyphenated
names?
• The more you learn about persuasion, the better able you become to persuade others. What
are the ethical implications of having the ability to persuade?
• Why do you think so many people laugh at jokes that put down other people? Can a joke be
funny even if you find it distasteful?
• There is much disagreement regarding hate speech laws: Supporters maintain they are
necessary to promote civility; critics contend they amount to unconstitutional censorship.
What do you think?
• Why do many people find it so challenging to separate opinions from factual claims?
• How would you deal with a friend who “hides” behind emails or texts rather than
communicating with you directly?
Additional Resources
• Bavelas, J. B., Black, A., Chovil, N., & Mullett, J. (1990). Equivocal communication.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
• Deutscher, G. (2010). Through the looking glass: Why the world looks different in other
languages. New York, NY: Metropolitan books.
• McGlone, M. S., & Giles, H. (2011). Language and interpersonal communication. In M. L.
Knapp & J. A. Daly (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication (4th ed., pp. 213–
239). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• O’Hair, D., Friedrich, G. W., & Dixon, L. D. (2015). Strategic communication in business
• Pinker, S. (2011). Words and rules: The ingredients of language. New York, NY:
HarperCollins.
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Learning Objectives in CONNECT for Interpersonal Communication
The Nature of Language
• Define language.
• Distinguish between symbols that do and do not qualify as language.
• Recall that verbal communication applies to both spoken and written communication.
• Describe how language is symbolic.
• Know the difference between symbols and the objects they represent.
• Recall that different languages have different words, or symbols, for the same thing.
• Describe how the meanings of words change over time.
• Explain how language is mostly arbitrary.
• Know that language is arbitrary because it is symbolic.
• Define onomatopoeia.
• Explain how onomatopoeic words have an iconic connection to their meanings.
• Recall that language is governed by four types of rules.
• Define the phonological language rule.
• Define the syntactic language rule.
• Define the semantic language rule.
• Define the pragmatic language rule.
• Recall that language has layers of meaning.
• Define denotative meaning.
• Define loaded language.
• Differentiate between connotative and denotative meanings of words.
• Explain the semantic triangle.
• Define the symbol in the semantic triangle.
• Define the referent in the semantic triangle.
• Define the reference in the semantic triangle.
• Recall the three elements of the semantic triangle.
• Recall that the meanings are words are situated in the people who use them, not in the words
themselves.
• Define loaded language.
• Recall that loaded terms can be used to evoke positive or negative emotions.
• Explain how language varies in clarity.
• Define ambiguous language.
• Explain what it means for a word to be concrete.
• Explain what it means for a word to be abstract.
• Explain how language is bound by context and culture.
• Explain the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
• Define linguistic determinism.
• Define linguistic relativity.
• Critique the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
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Appreciating the Power of Words
• Explain how names define and differentiate individuals
• Explain how naming practices vary according to culture and religion.
• Define persuasion.
• Explain ethos and how it is used to persuade others in interpersonal contexts.
• Explain pathos and how it is used to persuade others in interpersonal contexts.
• Explain logos and how it is used to persuade others in interpersonal contexts.
• Define reason.
• Define credibility.
• Explain the relationship between language and credibility.
• Define cliché.
• Define dialect.
• Explain the communication accommodation theory.
• Define equivocation.
• Recall when equivocal language is commonly used.
• Describe weasel words.
• Describe an allness statement.
• Explain how language is used to express affection.
• Differentiate between affection and intimacy.
• Recall that communicating intimacy and affection can be good for relationships.
• Recall the risks of misinterpretation when using affectionate language.
• Recall that language can be used to provide comfort.
• Identify tips for using language to comfort others who have experienced loss.
• Explain how language can be used to comfort ourselves.
• Describe the relationship between emotions and health.
The Use and Abuse of Language
• Identify the most important aspect of humor.
• Explain how humor can be used to enhance interpersonal interactions.
• Explain how humor can be used negatively.
• Define euphemism.
• Recall that euphemisms can change over time.
• Explain the good and bad points of euphemisms.
• Define doublespeak.
• Define slang.
• Explain how slang can serve a social function.
• Define jargon.
• Explain the positive and negative purposes of jargon and slang.
• Define defamation.
• Define libel.
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• Define slander.
• Define profanity.
• Explain the practice of “reclaiming the term.”
• Explain how profanity can be used as a social lubricant.
• Define hate speech.
• Explain the controversy around hate laws and regulations.
Creating a Positive Communication Climate
• Define communication climate.
• Explain how confirming messages contribute to positive communication climates.
• Describe the three types of confirming messages.
• Define disconfirming messages.
• Describe the five types of disconfirming messages.
• Define defensiveness.
• Define supportiveness.
• Recall that messages can promote defensiveness or supportiveness in interpersonal
interaction.
• Compare and contrast different message types that promote defensiveness and
supportiveness.
• Define feedback.
• Define non-evaluative feedback.
• Describe the three techniques for non-evaluative feedback.
• Define evaluative feedback.
• Describe the two steps of effective evaluative feedback.
• Describe an I-statement.
• Describe a you-statement.
• Explain the benefit of using I-statements.
• Distinguish between factual claims and opinions.
• Recall that opinions are opinions whether you agree with them or not.
• Recall that factual claims are factual claims whether they are true or not.
• Identify tips for creating a positive climate in online interactions.
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In-Class Exercises
In-Class Exercise A: Persuasion and Loaded Language
1. This exercise helps students to identify examples of loaded language in verbal persuasive
attempts. The exercise makes use of the video clip “On the Air,” available on the course
website.
2. The video clip portrays an on-air conversation between two speakers on opposite sides of an
issue. A host moderates the conversation. Tell students to listen for examples of loaded
language in each speaker’s monologues. Show the host’s introduction and the first speaker’s
monologue, then pause the video. During this pause, ask students to identify (either aloud or
in writing) any examples of loaded language. This activity can be difficult because it is a
challenge to separate what we consider to be loaded language from our own reaction to the
language. In other words, it’s easy to identify loaded language when we disagree with the
point being made; it’s more challenging to do so when we agree with the speaker’s point.
Press your students to evaluate the speakers objectively, irrespective of their own agreement
with the speakers’ positions. Show the next speaker’s monologue and repeat the activity.
3. After watching the entire conversation, ask students which speaker used more loaded
language. Also, which speaker did they think was most persuasive?
In-Class Exercise B: Language and Health
1. This exercise encourages students to use Pennebaker’s expressive writing paradigm as a way
to improve mental (and perhaps physical) well-being. This activity has both in-class and out-
of-class components.
2. Students may already have read about Pennebaker’s writing paradigm by the time you assign
this exercise, so there is a good chance that expectancy effects will influence the outcome.
Nonetheless, tell students that the point of the activity is for them to see how various forms of
writing might influence their day-to-day experiences over a one-week period. Use care to
refer to the influences or effects of the writing, rather than its benefits, to minimize
expectancy effects.
3. The in-class portion of the activity takes a little more than 20 minutes. To begin, make
photocopies of the forms that follow here. You will give half of your students each form,
along with a letter-sized envelope in which to seal his or her response.
4. Fold each form and put it in a letter-sized envelope, but do not seal the envelopes. Next, put
the envelopes into a random order, so that you don’t know which form is in which. To start
the activity, hand the envelopes out to students. Tell them that when you say “go,” they
should take the folded form out of the envelope and follow the instructions. Time the activity
to last exactly 20 minutes, and at the end of that time, tell students to stop writing and to
re-fold their forms and seal them in their envelopes.
5. Be aware that half of your students will be writing about emotionally disturbing experiences,
so some may be experiencing emotional discomfort at the end of the activity. It is highly
recommended that you time the activity so that there is plenty of class time afterward
(i.e., do not run the activity at the end of class or right before a break), so that you have time
to continue discussion and lecture afterward, providing a distraction for those who might be
experiencing mild distress.
6. Tell students to keep their envelopes in a safe place and not to open them for at least a week.
After that period, they can do with them what they will.
7. For the out-of-class portion, ask students to keep a short diary over the next seven days, using
the half-page forms below. Copy and distribute the form so that each student gets four copies
(enough for seven days of recording).
8. On the day the diary forms are due to you (which should be seven days after the writing
activity), pass around a stapler so that each student can staple his or her forms together.
Before they hand them forward, ask each student to write either an “A” or a “B” at the top of
the first page: “A” if he or she wrote about an emotional experience during the writing
activity, or “B” if he or she wrote about the previous day’s events.
9. At this point, you might ask students to share about their experience with the in-class writing
activity and any insights they gained while keeping their diary. Because of expectancy effects
and other forms of error, your class may or may not follow the pattern wherein those doing
emotional writing reap benefits that control participants do not; however, the point of the
example is for students to experience and reflect on the writing activity.
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Form A
Think about an emotionally distressing experience you have gone through in your life. This
could be something recent or something from many years ago. When your instructor says
“go,” use the space below to write about the experience and how you felt about it. What do
you remember about it? How did it make you feel? How did you deal with your feelings?
It is very important that you write continuously until your instructor tells you to stop. If you
can’t think of anything new to say, just repeat something you have written before until new
thoughts come up. Please do not put your name on this form or on the envelope. At the end
of this activity, you will be sealing this form in the envelope and keeping it. No one else will
see what you have written here.
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Form B
Think about your day yesterday. When your instructor says “go,” use the space below to
write about your day yesterday. What did you do? Where did you go? With whom did you
interact?
It is very important that you write continuously until your instructor tells you to stop. If you
can’t think of anything new to say, just repeat something you have written before until new
thoughts come up. Please do not put your name on this form or on the envelope. At the end
of this activity, you will be sealing this form in the envelope and keeping it. No one else will
see what you have written here.
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Out-of-Class Diary Form
Complete one half-page form in the evening every day for the next seven days.
Today’s date: _________________________
Your name: _______________________________________
All things considered, today went . . .
Very poorly
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Very well
At the end of the day today, I felt . . .
Very bad
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Very good
The best thing that happened today was:
The worst thing that happened today was:
Today’s date: _________________________
Your name: _______________________________________
All things considered, today went . . .
Very poorly
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Very well
At the end of the day today, I felt . . .
Very bad
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Very good
The best thing that happened today was:
The worst thing that happened today was:
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In-Class Exercise C: Language and Respect
1. This exercise encourages students to learn about language use from the perspective of those
in marginalized populations. The activity contains both in-class and out-of-class elements.
2. Divide your class into groups of four to six students each. Tell the class that this activity
involves collecting information on language use from minorities and members of
traditionally marginalized populations, then combining their information into a short in-class
presentation. Assign each group one population to focus on. Those might include, for
example, ethnic or cultural minorities, the elderly, sexual minorities, the physically disabled,
or other groups, so long as it would be reasonable to expect students to know or be able to
meet people in each population.
3. For the out-of-class portion of the activity, give your student groups a week to identify at
least three people who belong to their assigned population and interview them about their
experiences with language relevant to their population. In particular, students should ask
what terms the people in their populations find respectful or disrespectful for others to use
(e.g., many lesbians and gays prefer the term “sexual orientation” to “sexual preference”).
They might also ask for specific examples of how others’ language use has made them feel
respected, misunderstood, or even oppressed. The goal is for students to gather information
about their target populations’ experiences with others’ language use.
4. After their interviews, ask your students to meet in their groups (either in or out of class) to
discuss what they learned from their interviews and to prepare a short (5–10 minutes,
depending on the number of groups in your class) presentation regarding their findings.
Encourage students to pay attention not only to the similarities among their interviewees’
responses, but also to differences (noting that members of a population rarely speak with a
unified voice).
5. You might also ask the students in each group to reflect on their own previous experiences
with members of the population they studied, and ask them to indicate (in their presentation)
what they individually learned about their population with respect to language.
Out-of-Class Exercises
Out-of-Class Exercise A: The History of Your Name
1. In this exercise, students will research their own names and write up a brief report (or
perhaps create a poster or other visual presentation).
2. The assignment for students is to study the history, origin, and significance of each of their
names (first, middle, last, married name, etc.). For each name, they should find out as much
as they can about where the name originated and what it means. For first and middle names,
they should also find out (if they don’t know already) why they were given those names (e.g.,
were they named after someone?).
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3. Ask students also to reflect on their satisfaction with at least their first names. What do they
like about their names? What do they dislike? Has their satisfaction changed over the course
of their lives? Would they consider passing their name on to one of their children?
4. You might also ask students to report on the origin and history of any nicknames they have
been called. Who gave them the nickname, and why? How much do they like or dislike the
nickname? Are only certain people allowed to use it?
Out-of-Class Exercise B: Develop a Slang Dictionary
1. In this exercise, students will learn and define at least a dozen slang terms commonly used in
a specified population.
2. In this exercise, each student is assigned a specific population and must research that
population enough to identify at least 12 slang terms and their meanings, and must then
compile the terms (in alphabetical order) and their definitions in a slang dictionary for that
population. You may certainly elect to require a different number of terms than 12.
3. The exercise works best when you do not allow students to choose the populations to report
on (this helps avoid students choosing populations to which they belong). What you might do
instead is generate a list of potential populations and have students draw them out of a hat.
Populations might be based on professions (firefighters, accountants, college professors),
sports interests (hockey, figure skating, bowling), hobbies (rock climbing, coin collecting),
religious affiliation (Catholic, Jewish, Muslim), or even geographic region (New Englanders,
southerners, Alaskans).
4. Stress to students that the meaning of each slang term must not be readily apparent to those
outside that population. Students might do their research for this activity by looking at
Internet pages related to their population, watching movies or TV shows relevant to that
population, and/or talking to people who belong to that population.