Instructor Resources for Chapter 2
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Chapter Outline
Opening scenario: Communication in the World’s Borough
I. Understanding Culture and Communication
a. Defining culture
i. Distinguishing between in-groups and out-groups
ii. Acquiring a culture
b. The components of culture
i. Symbols
ii. Language
iii. Values
iv. Norms
c. Cultures and co-cultures
i. Defining co-cultures
ii. The bases of co-cultures
iii. Belonging to multiple co-cultures
d. Social media as a co-culture
e. Communicating with cultural awareness
Learn it, apply it, reflect on it
II. How Culture Affects Communication
a. Individualism and collectivism
b. Low- and high-context cultures
c. Low- and high-power-distance cultures
d. Masculine and feminine cultures
e. Monochronic and polychronic cultures
f. Uncertainty avoidance
g. Cultural communication codes
i. Idioms
ii. Jargon
iii. Gestures
Learn it, apply it, reflect on it
III. Understanding Gender and Communication
a. Gender roles and communication
i. The masculine gender role
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ii. The feminine gender role
iii. The androgynous gender role
iv. How gender varies by time and culture
b. Biological sex and communication
c. Sexual orientation and communication
i. Heterosexuality
ii. Homosexuality
iii. Bisexuality
iv. Asexuality
d. Some explanations for gendered communication
Learn it, apply it, reflect on it
IV. How Gender Affects Communication
a. Gender and verbal communication
i. Expressive and instrumental talk
ii. Language and power
iii. Gendered linguistic styles
b. Gender and nonverbal communication
i. Touch and body movement
ii. Emotional communication
iii. Affectionate behavior
Learn it, apply it, reflect on it
In-text boxes:
a. Communication/Dark Side: Cultural stereotyping in stressful times
b. Got Skills? Cultural norms
c. At a Glance: Seven aspects of culture
d. Assess Your Skills: How culturally sensitive are you?
e. Fact or Fiction? Same-sex relationships are less stable than heterosexual
relationships.
f. At a Glance: Three components of gender
g. Got Skills? Powerful language
h. Fact or Fiction? Women are more talkative than men.
Key Terms
androgyny
asexuality
bisexuality
co-cultures
collectivistic culture
communication codes
culture
ethnicity
ethnocentrism
expressive talk
femininity
gender role
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heterosexuality
high-context culture
high-power-distance culture
homosexuality
individualistic culture
in-group
instrumental talk
low-context culture
low-power-distance culture
masculinity
monochronic
nationality
out-group
polychronic
sexual orientation
similarity assumption
society
uncertainty avoidance
Definitions for Key Terms
androgyny: a gender role distinguished by a combination of masculine and feminine
characteristics
asexuality: a sexual orientation characterized by a general lack of interest in sex
bisexuality: a sexual orientation characterized by sexual interest in both women and men
co-cultures: groups of people who share values, customs, and norms related to a mutual interest
or characteristic beyond their national citizanship
collectivistic culture: a culture that places greater emphasis on loyalty to the family, workplace,
or community than on the needs of the individual
communication codes: verbal and nonverbal behaviors, such as idioms and gestures, that
characterize a culture and distinguish it from other cultures
culture: the system of learned and shared symbols, language, values, and norms that distinguish
one group of people from another
ethnicity: an individual’s perception of his or her ancestry or heritage
ethnocentrism: systematic preference for characteristics of one’s own culture
expressive talk: verbal communication whose purpose is to express emotions and build
relationships
femininity: a gender role, typically assigned to women, that emphasizes expressive, nurturing
behavior
gender role: a set of expectations for appropriate behavior that a culture typically assigns to an
individual based on his or her biological sex
heterosexuality: a sexual orientation characterized by sexual interest in members of the other sex
high-context culture: a culture in which verbal communication is often ambiguous and meaning
is drawn from contextual cues, such as facial expressions and tone of voice
high-power-distance culture: a culture in which much or most of the power is concentrated in a
few people, such as royalty or a ruling political party
homosexuality: a sexual orientation characterized by sexual interest in members of one’s
own sex
individualistic culture: a culture that emphasizes individuality and responsibility to oneself
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in-group: group of people with whom one identifies
instrumental talk: verbal communication whose purpose is to solve problems and accomplish
tasks
low-context culture: a culture in which verbal communication is expected to be explicit and is
often interpreted literally
low-power-distance culture: a culture in which power is not highly concentrated in specific
groups of people
masculinity: a gender role, typically assigned to men, that emphasizes strength, dominance,
competition, and logical thinking
monochronic: a concept that treats time as a finite commodity that can be earned, saved, spent,
and wasted
nationality: an individual’s status as a citizen of a particular country
out-group: group of people with whom one does not identify
polychronic: a concept that treats time as an infinite resource rather than a finite commodity
sexual orientation: a characteristic determining the sex or sexes to which someone is sexually
attracted
similarity assumption: one’s tendency to presume that others think the same way he or she does
society: a group of people who share symbols, language, values, and norms
uncertainty avoidance: the degree to which people try to avoid situations that are unstructured,
unclear, or unpredictable
Discussion Questions
• Culture is something that we often assume only other people have. In what ways are you
aware of the cultural influences on your own behavior?
• What co-cultures do you belong to or identify with? What are some ways that your
co-cultures influence how you communicate interpersonally?
• In what ways do social media constitute unique co-cultures? What cultural values, language,
and/or practices are associated with Twitter, Snapchat, Instagram, or Facebook?
• The United States is sometimes criticized for being as individualistic as it is. What are some
positive aspects about growing up in an individualistic culture? In what ways would growing
up in a collectivistic culture be better?
• What does your culture highly value? Achievement? Equality? Respect? Authority?
Honesty? Loyalty? How do you see your cultural values being transmitted and reinforced in
your society?
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• Many researchers believe that all behavioral differences between women and men (apart
from reproductive behaviors) are socially constructed. Do you think that’s true? Can you
think of any behavioral differences that might be biological or genetic in origin?
• Are masculinity and femininity different cultures? What are some reasons to think they are?
• Why do you suppose that men’s style of talk is more instrumental than women’s, whereas
women’s is more expressive than men’s? What are some various ways to explain those
differences?
• Gay men are stereotyped as communicating more like women than men, whereas lesbians are
often seen as communicating more like men than women. Which do you think is a more
powerful influence on behavior—biological sex or sexual orientation?
Additional Resources
• Dindia, K., & Canary, D. J. (Eds.). (2006). Sex differences and similarities in communication
(2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Hofstede, G. (2003). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and
organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. E., McDaniel, E. R., & Roy, C. S. (Eds.). (2014). Intercultural
• Wood, J. T. (1998). But I thought you meant…: Misunderstandings in human
communication. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
• Wood, J. T. (2014). Gendered lives: Communication, gender, and culture (11th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Learning Objectives in CONNECT for Interpersonal Communication
Understanding Culture and Communication
• Recognize that culture and gender shape communication behaviors and interpretations of
others’ communication.
• Recall how culture influences communication behavior.
• Define culture.
• Recall that culture is a property of people.
• Define societies.
• Categorize in-group status from out-group status.
• Explain the potential effects of being perceived as different.
• Explain the challenges of out-group status.
• Describe culture shock.
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• Explain why we notice people’s similarities and differences.
• Explain why people seek out others who are similar to them.
• Define ethnocentrism.
• Explain how individuals acquire culture.
• Define enculturation.
• Define ethnicity.
• Define nationality.
• Describe how culture is determined.
• Identify the four components of cultures.
• Determine the relationship between words, symbols, and culture.
• Explain how language is used in a culture.
• Define a culture’s values.
• Identify some of the cultural values of the United States.
• Define norms.
• Recognize that norms vary by culture.
• Define co-culture.
• Explain the bases of co-cultures.
• Recall that people may identify with multiple co-cultures.
• Analyze how social media can be described as a co-culture.
• Explain how people from different cultural backgrounds communicate and think differently.
• Define the similarity assumption.
• Explain the importance of questioning one’s own cultural assumptions.
How Culture Affects Communication
• Recall that cultures differ in the amount of importance they place on individuals or
on groups.
• Define individualistic culture.
• Identify the values of an individualistic culture.
• Define collectivistic culture.
• Identify the values of a collectivistic culture.
• Compare and contrast how people handle conflict in individualistic and collectivistic
cultures.
• Define low-context culture.
• Define high-context culture.
• Compare and contrast low- and high-context cultures.
• Explain how misunderstandings may occur when individuals from low- and high-context
cultures communicate with one another.
• Define low-power-distance cultures.
• Compare and contrast low- and high-power-distance cultures.
• Define high-power-distance cultures.
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• Explain how power distance affects communication in relationships.
• Define autonomy.
• Explain how power distance affects how people view authority.
• Identify values of masculine culture.
• Identify values of feminine culture.
• Compare and contrast masculine and feminine cultures.
• Describe what it means to have a monochronic orientation to time.
• Describe what it means to have a polychronic orientation to time.
• Compare and contrast monochronic and polychronic cultures.
• Define uncertainty avoidance.
• Identify characteristics of uncertainty-avoiding cultures.
• Identify characteristics of uncertainty-accepting cultures.
• Compare and contrast communication in uncertainty avoiding and uncertainty accepting
cultures.
• Define communication codes.
• Define idiom.
• Identify examples of cultural idioms.
• Define jargon.
• Identify examples of jargon.
• Explain how jargon can be beneficial to communication.
• Define gestures.
• Recognize that similar gestures can have different meanings from society to society.
• Compare and contrast the three types of communication codes and how they vary by culture.
Understanding Gender and Communication
• Identify factors that influence gender.
• Compare and contrast gender, gender roles, biological sex, and sexual orientation.
• Define gender roles.
• Define masculinity.
• Identify traditional masculine qualities.
• Analyze the positive and negative aspects of masculinity.
• Define femininity.
• Identify traditional feminine qualities.
• Analyze the positive and negative aspects of femininity.
• Compare and contrast masculinity, femininity, and androgyny.
• Explain how gender roles in the media have changed over time.
• Explain how gender roles differ by culture.
• Define biological sex.
• Explain the diversity of forms of biological sex, beyond simply male and/or female.
• Define transgendered.
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• Differentiate between a transsexual individual and a transgendered person.
• Define sexual orientation.
• Define heterosexuality.
• Explain the reasons for the predominance of heterosexuality across cultures.
• Define homosexuality.
• Define bisexuality.
• Define asexuality.
• Differentiate asexuality from celibacy.
• Evaluate the claim that same-sex relationships are less stable than heterosexual relationships.
• Differentiate between the four patterns of sexual orientation.
• Explain the basis of a gender clash.
• Explain how communication behaviors are affected by sex, gender roles, and/or sexual
orientation.
• Analyze the implications of the exaggerated claim that the sexes are from different planets.
How Gender Affects Communication
• Explain two important points when considering how gender affects communication
• Differentiate between instrumental and expressive talk.
• Explain how men and women become socialized in different speech communities.
• Analyze how expressive and instrumental talk are learned.
• Identify the features of powerful speech.
• Identify the features of less powerful speech.
• Explain linguistic violence.
• Describe how groups of people are marginalized.
• Differentiate between male and female’s linguistic styles.
• Explain how sex influences touch and body movement.
• Explain affiliation behaviors and how they are used.
• Compare and contrast the emotions that men and women are likely to express.
• Explain how sexual orientation may affect emotional expression.
• Define affectionate communication.
• Evaluate the theories about why women are more affectionate than men.
• Describe the influence of sexual orientation on affectionate communication.
In-Class Exercises
In-Class Exercise A: In-Groups and Out-Groups
1. This exercise focuses on people’s tendency to cooperate more with in-group members than
with out-group members. The exercise works best in classes of at least 40 students. For this
exercise, you will need two Post-It pads of different colors.
2. You will need to create the following materials prior to running the exercise: Every student
will need two slips of paper, one that reads “$100” and one that reads “$0.” Each student will
also need one letter-sized envelope.
3. Have students count off by twos. Tell all of the “1s” to go to one side of the room and all of
the “2s” to go to the other side. Give a Post-It pad (of different colors) to each group and
have each student take one Post-It sheet off the pad and affix it to the front of his or her shirt.
That will provide a visual representation of which group each student belongs to.
4. Next, pair half of the students in each group with another student in their same group. Pair
the other half of the students with a student from the opposing group.
5. Read the following instructions aloud:
“In each pair, you’re going to negotiate a business transaction. Each of you has two slips of
paper, one worth a hundred dollars and one worth nothing. When I say start, you and your
partner will have five minutes to talk and negotiate, after which time you must each seal one
or the other of your slips of paper in your envelope and then exchange envelopes. After you
have made your exchange, hold onto the envelope you received but do not open it. You and
your partner have several options for how to make your transaction. First, you can agree to
exchange your hundred-dollar bills, or exchange your zero-dollar bills, and you both come
out even. Second, you can agree to give your hundred-dollar bill to your partner in exchange
for his or her zero-dollar bill, leaving your partner with $200 and you with nothing. Third,
you can agree to give your zero-dollar bill to your partner in exchange for his or her hundred-
dollar bill, leaving you with $200 and your partner with nothing. In your negotiation, you
should mutually decide which outcome is best. Whatever you and your partner agree to do,
it is up to each of you to decide individually whether to honor it. For instance, if you have
agreed to give your partner your hundred-dollar bill, you can choose to do that, or you can
betray your partner by giving him or her your zero-dollar bill instead. Your bills will be
exchanged in sealed envelopes, so neither of you will know what your partner has done when
you make your exchange.”
6. Tell your students nothing more about the object of the game. For example, don’t tell them
the object is for them to get as much money as they can, or for them to help their teammates
more than students from the other team.
7. Give your pairs of students five minutes to talk and negotiate. At the end of that time, instruct
each student to fold and seal one of the strips of paper into the envelope. This must be done
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out of view of the student’s partner. Then, tell the students in each pair to exchange
envelopes.
8. When that portion of the exercise is finished, tell students to open their envelopes and
determine whether their partners honored their agreement or not. Within each pair, four
outcomes are possible: 1) both partners honored the agreement; 2) partner A honored the
agreement but partner B defected; 3) partner A defected but partner B honored the
agreement; 4) both partners defected.
9. By show of hands, ask the students who interacted with a same-group other how many of
them defected on their partners (i.e., how many failed to honor whatever agreement they
made with their partner). Next, ask the same question of students who interacted with a
student from the opposite group. Typically, a higher percentage of students will defect
against someone from the opposing team than against someone from their own team. If that
is the case, then use the exercise to generate discussion about in-group and out-group
principles. Point out that the in-group/out-group distinction is powerful—the two groups only
differed in the color of Post-It note they had on their shirts, but that was enough to activate
their motivation to cooperate more with in-group members than out-group members.
In-Class Exercise B: Culture/Gender Challenges in a Hat
1. This exercise focuses on students’ own challenges when communicating with people of
different cultures or genders (it is best to select either culture or gender, not both, for this
exercise). It is a simple exercise that can be done in 15–20 minutes.
2. It’s very important that an atmosphere of respect and dignity be created and maintained in
the classroom before and during this exercise. Encourage students to be honest with their
responses, but emphasize that students are not to critique or criticize each other.
3. Give each student a slip of paper. On their piece of paper, have students briefly describe one
challenge they have experienced when communicating with someone of a different cultural
or gender group, one question they have about other cultures/genders, or one observation
they can make about how another culture/gender communicates (based on their own
experience). Once everyone has written, have students fold their slips of paper and then
deposit them into a box, a large bowl, or a hat. Mix them up as best you can.
4. Pass the hat (or box, or bowl) around the class. One at a time, have each student draw out one
response and read it aloud to the class. Then, ask that student to respond to what was written.
Students can express agreement or disagreement, offer their own experience, or speculate on
an answer (if a question was posed). Reinforce that students are to respond only to what was
written, not to attack the presumed author. The class is not to respond to the student
speaking; rather, each student draws a slip of paper, reads it, responds to it, and then you
move onto the next student.
5. At the end of the exercise, use the writings and students’ oral responses to them to generate
discussion about culture and/or gender. What written or oral comments did students find the
most surprising? The most provocative? The most discomforting?
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In-Class Exercise C: Sex Stereotypes
1. This exercise focuses on students’ perceptions of women’s and men’s psychological and
communicative characteristics.
2. Students will need a sheet of notebook paper to complete the exercise. Explain that you are
going to read off a list of words fairly quickly. After each word, students should indicate on
their paper which sex they think the word best describes: an M if male, an F if female, or a B
if the word immediately makes them think of both sexes. Emphasize that you will be moving
quickly through the words, so students should mark their first impressions. Also emphasize
that you are asking which sex the word makes students think of first—you are not asking
students to think about whether it’s possible the word could describe both sexes.
3. Number the words as you read them (i.e., say “1. talkative”) so that students can mark a
corresponding number on their papers. Allow only enough time for students to quickly mark
down a number and a response, then move to the next word. Tell students that if they miss a
word, they should simply pick up their exercise with the next word you give (i.e., you are not
going to repeat words).
4. The list below is just one set of ideas; you should feel free to alter it however you choose,
making sure that it represents a mixture of stereotypically male and female adjectives.
5. At the end of the exercise, have students glance back through their answers. Most will end up
with a mix of Ms, Fs, and Bs. Those answers (especially Ms and Fs) tend to reflect
stereotypical notions about male and female behavior. That does not necessarily mean they
are inaccurate, and you should emphasize that to your class (stereotypes are often accurate).
For example, many students will have put an F next to “emotionally expressive,” and
research supports that women are more emotionally expressive than men. Some stereotyped
judgments are inaccurate, however; many students will probably also have marked an F next
to “talkative,” yet research indicates that men and women are equally talkative.
6. You might use the exercise to generate discussion about where our stereotyped notions about
gender and communication come from and how they are reinforced.
Here is an example list of adjectives that you might use (add to the list as you see fit):
Talkative
Intelligent
Aggressive
Intense
Gentle
Logical
Dynamic
Critical
Funny
Romantic
Nurturing
Outspoken
Independent
Compassionate
Intellectual
Artistic
Mechanically inclined
Fashionable
Daring
Self-motivated
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Out-of-Class Exercises
Out-of-Class Exercise A: Learning about Different Co-Cultures
1. In this exercise, students will gather information about symbols, language, values, and norms
in two co-cultures about which they were previously naïve.
2. Students should begin by identifying two co-cultures about which they know very little.
A list of examples is provided below—you might augment this list with examples relevant to
your school or geographic region, and you might distribute this list to students to help them
generate ideas. The point is for students to pick two co-cultures that are different from each
other and about which the students know almost nothing.
3. Students should use multiple methods for researching their co-cultures. Their goal is to be
able to characterize each co-culture’s symbols (e.g., mascots, hand signs), language (e.g.,
slang, unique terminology), values, and behavioral norms. Students might examine websites
related to each co-culture, watch movies about the co-culture, and/or interview people who
identify with each co-culture. You should designate a specific time period during which
students’ research is to be completed.
4. The product of the exercise could be a paper, an in-class presentation, or a poster/collage.
Make certain that students report on all four constructs (symbols, language, values, norms)
from each co-culture, as that will reinforce their understanding of those components of
culture.
Some potential examples of co-cultures:
Fly fishers
Car racing fans
Web hackers
Cancer survivors
Religious groups
Police officers
Skateboarders
Classical musicians
Diabetics
Star Trek fans
Civil War re-enactors
Stamp collectors
Sculptors
Identical twins
Feminists
Harpists
Tennis players
Cat owners
Wine enthusiasts
Runners
Gardening fans
Pool players
Nudists
Young Republicans
Out-of-Class Exercise B: Sex Differences in Self-Presentation
1. In this exercise, students will content-analyze a selection of personal ads to identify
differences in how women and men describe themselves for the purposes of attracting
relational partners.
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2. Students should identify a source of personal ads (i.e., ads seeking dates or potential romantic
partners, as opposed to one-time sexual opportunities). These will most likely be ads posted
online. Students should collect a minimum number of ads (e.g., 20 each) placed by women
seeking men and by men seeking women.
3. Students should carefully analyze each ad to determine how the advertiser has described
him- or herself. Specifically, students should look for what types of characteristics are being
emphasized. Most likely, they will find that women emphasize their physical appearance
(particularly any clues to beauty and youth), whereas men emphasize their status and
resources (including their education, their possessions, etc.). After doing their analysis,
students should write up their findings and should submit copies of the personal ads along
with their analysis.
4. You might have a few students present their analyses in class, and then ask the remaining
students whether they had similar findings. You might use this as an opportunity to discuss
why women and men represent themselves in these ways when trying to attract mates.
5. A variant on this exercise would involve comparing heterosexual personal ads to ones placed
by lesbians and gay men. Is the general sex difference reversed (i.e., do gay men emphasize
looks and lesbians emphasize resources)? Or, does the general sex difference remain,
regardless of sexual orientation?