59) A(n) ________ is any consequence immediately following a response that increases the
probability that the behavior will be repeated.
A) conclusion
B) reinforcer
C) goal
D) objective
E) referent
60) The proponents of reinforcement theory view behavior as ________.
A) the result of a cognitive process
B) environmentally caused
C) a reflection of the inner state of the individual
D) a function of one’s power need
E) a product of heredity
61) ________ argues that people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid
something they don’t want.
A) Theory Y
B) Theory X
C) Social cognitive theory
D) Operant conditioning theory
E) McClelland’s theory of needs
62) To get the best results while using reinforcement theory, rewards should be ________.
A) small and given only once
B) large and given at irregular intervals
C) given prior to the desired behavior response
D) given immediately following the desired behavior
E) presented publicly with a large number of witnesses
63) Helen, a high school teacher, wants her students to actively participate more in class. She has
decided to use reinforcement theory to get the required results. Which of the following methods
is she most likely to use?
A) She is going to call on students who never participate.
B) She is going to yell at students, telling them that they are not making good grades.
C) She is going to ask the students that always participate to allow the others to have a chance.
D) She is going to model what active participation should look like at the beginning of class.
E) She is going to give students an extra mark each time that they contribute.
64) The concept of operant conditioning is a part of the broader concept of ________, which
argues that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
A) equity theory
B) expectancy theory
C) cognitive behavioral therapy
D) behaviorism
E) humanism
65) What is the limitation of reinforcement theory in explaining changes in behavior?
A) It does not adequately describe the original behavior.
B) It places too much emphasis on feelings and attitudes.
C) Most behavior is, in fact, environmentally caused.
D) It ignores the effect of rewards and punishments on behavior.
E) It does not recognize the effect of cognitive variables.
66) According to social learning theory, which of the following processes demonstrates whether
an individual is capable of performing the modeled activities?
A) attentional process
B) retention process
C) motor reproduction process
D) reinforcement process
E) motivation process
67) George is trying to teach his two-year old son to gently caress their cat. George softly strokes
the animal and every time his son does the same, he rewards him with kind words like “good
job!” The child is very attentive during the process and claps his hands when his father praises
him. However, as soon as George leaves, the boy lunges for the cat and grabs it by the tail.
Which process of social-learning theory is failing?
A) attentional processes
B) justification processes
C) retention processes
D) motor reproduction processes
E) reinforcement processes
68) In equity theory, individuals assess the ________.
A) cost-benefit ratio
B) efficiency-effectiveness trade-off
C) quantity-quality trade-off
D) outcome-input ratio
E) quality of outcome
69) Karen graduated from college four years ago and has been working at Betaphy Inc. ever
since. She has consistently received good performance evaluations for the quality of her work.
She recently found out that her company hired a fresh college graduate with no experience at a
salary higher than hers. Which of the following theories will Karen most likely use to evaluate
this situation?
A) reinforcement
B) goal setting
C) equity
D) expectancy
E) operant conditioning
70) According to the equity theory, there are four referent comparisons. The referent comparison
known as other-inside refers to ________.
A) an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization
B) an employee’s experiences in a different position outside the employee’s current organization
C) another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization
D) an employee’s experiences in a similar position outside the employee’s current organization
E) another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization
71) Self-inside, one of the four referent comparisons in the equity theory, refers to ________.
A) an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization
B) an employee’s experiences in a different position outside the employee’s current organization
C) another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization
D) an employee’s experiences in a similar position outside the employee’s current organization
E) another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization
72) Other-outside is a referent comparison that refers to ________.
A) an employee’s experiences in a similar position outside the employee’s current organization
B) another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization
C) an employee’s experiences in a different position inside the employee’s current organization
D) another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization
E) an employee’s experiences in a different position outside the employee’s current organization
73) Jim is a salaried employee whose job is to develop content for online Web sites. He
discovers that he is paid substantially more than his colleagues even though their jobs and levels
of performance are very similar. According to the equity theory, what impact is this discovery
most likely to have on his behavior and performance?
A) He will reduce the amount of work that he does on a daily basis.
B) He will compare his earnings to those of another group of employees.
C) He will increase his productivity and/or the overall quality of his work.
D) He will seek a position within the company commensurate with his pay.
E) He will begin to look for a position outside of the company.
Megan graduated from college three years ago and has been working at Sterba Inc. ever since. A
conscientious employee, she has consistently received good performance evaluations. She
recently found out that a younger colleague, who was just recruited to her team, is drawing a
higher salary than she is for doing the same type of work.
74) Following this discovery, Megan starts coming to work late and her productivity begins to
suffer. Which of the following is most similar to the scenario mentioned above based on the
equity theory?
A) Dawn starts coming to work early and stays late once she learns that the mid-term review is
around the corner.
B) Greg believes he works harder than any of the other members in his department as they often
leave the office before him.
C) Lisa starts working longer hours after learning that her co-workers earn less than she does for
the same work.
D) Myrtle produces a higher number of units to compensate for the lower quality of her output.
E) Beth submits her resignation after she was passed over for promotion for the second time.
75) Based on the equity theory, which of the following, if true, would strengthen the argument
that Megan is trying to gain a sense of equity by distorting her perception of herself?
A) She thinks that her colleague is paid more because she is an Ivy League graduate.
B) She believes that she is less capable than her colleague.
C) She assumes that her colleague received a higher package due to changes in industry
standards.
D) She believes that her salary is not commensurate with her skills and experience.
E) She believes that she is doing a lot better career-wise compared to the people with whom she
graduated.
76) Based on the equity theory, which of the following, if true, would strengthen the argument
that Megan is trying to gain a sense of equity by changing her inputs?
A) She asks her boss for a raise, citing her years of experience with the company.
B) She claims that extrinsic rewards make work seem like a chore and less enjoyable.
C) She accepts additional responsibilities but fails to carry them out effectively.
D) She takes long breaks from work and shirks her responsibilities.
E) She constantly interrupts her colleague, refusing to let her get any work done.
77) Jackie thinks that she is paid a lot less than other employees in her division and feels
extremely resentful. She starts taking long breaks and generally wastes time. Her actions resulted
from a perceived lack of ________ justice.
A) interactional
B) interpersonal
C) procedural
D) distributive
E) associative
78) Edith believes that the methods for determining salary hikes and bonuses in her company are
extremely unfair. In this case, Edith perceives a lack of ________ justice.
A) interpersonal
B) distributive
C) associative
D) procedural
E) interactional
79) Which of the following types of justice relates most strongly to job satisfaction, employee
trust, withdrawal from the organization, job performance, and citizenship behaviors?
A) associative justice
B) interactional justice
C) distributive justice
D) procedural justice
E) integrative justice
80) Why do people who perceive themselves as victims of interactional injustice often blame
their immediate supervisor rather than the organization at large?
A) Interpersonal justice or injustice is intimately tied to the conveyer of the information.
B) Interactional injustice usually occurs during face-to-face encounters.
C) When people are not treated with respect, they tend to retaliate against those closest at hand.
D) Interactional injustice is in the eyes of those who perceive they are disrespected.
E) Interactional injustice is most often the result of the impersonal policies of the organization.
81) According to goal-setting theory, a specific goal will produce a higher level of output than a
generalized goal.
82) Feedback influences self-efficacy.