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True / False
1. Developmental theories attempt to explain the natural history of a criminal career encompassing its onset, continuation,
and termination.
a.
True
b.
False
2. Latent trait theories hold that human development is controlled by a “master trait” present at birth or soon after.
a.
True
b.
False
3. According to latent trait theory, the propensity to commit crime is unstable, but the opportunity to commit crime
remains stable over time.
a.
True
b.
False
4. The concept of population heterogeneity assumes that the propensity of an individual to participate in antisocial and/or
criminal behaviors is an ever-evolving trait, changing frequently and increasing in severity.
a.
True
b.
False
5. Trajectory theories assume there is more than one type of criminal and more than one criminal path.
a.
True
b.
False
6. Criminal career trajectories cannot be reversed even if life conditions improve.
a.
True
b.
False
7. Life course theorists seek to understand why people enter a criminal way of life and, once they do, why they alter the
trajectory of their criminal involvement.
a.
True
b.
False
8. Racial disparity in the criminal justice system helps put minority group members at a disadvantage, increasing the
likelihood that they will become embedded in criminal careers.
a.
True
b.
False
9. According to life course view, even as toddlers, people begin relationships and behaviors that may determine their
entire life course
a.
True
b.
False
10. The early onset of antisocial behavior strongly predicts later and more serious criminality.
a.
True
b.
False
11. While problem behavior syndrome is linked to violent criminal activity, there is no explanatory research linking PBS
to impulsiveness, low self ego, and drug abuse.
a.
True
b.
False
12. Problem behavior syndrome is traditionally broken into three subcategories; these categories include behavioral,
environmental, and personal perceptions.
a.
True
b.
False
13. Problem behavior syndrome portrays crime as the by-product of other social problems.
a.
True
b.
False
14. Building social capital supports conventional behavior and inhibits deviant behavior.
a.
True
b.
False
15. Social schematic theory relies on how people develop cognitive shortcuts to organize and interpret information.
a.
True
b.
False
16. Research shows that both men and women have a greater likelihood of arrest when divorced compared with when they
were married.
a.
True
b.
False
17. Regardless of gender or environment, those who maintain a latent trait may be predisposed to crime and are in danger
of becoming career criminals.
a.
True
b.
False
18. The crime and human nature model proposes that biological and psychological traits influence the crime–non-crime
choice.
a.
True
b.
False
19. The general theory of crime links the propensity to commit crime to low intelligence and body build.
a.
True
b.
False
20. A major criticism of the general theory of crime is that it fails to explain racial and gender differences in crime.
a.
True
b.
False
21. People with limited self-control tend to be impulsive.
a.
True
b.
False
22. Gottfredson and Hirschi trace the root cause of poor self-control to inadequate child-rearing practices by parents.
a.
True
b.
False
23. Research has shown that individuals with low resting heart rates may seek out dangerous and arousing behaviors to
compensate for their biological condition.
a.
True
b.
False
24. Measures of neuropsychological deficits, birth complications, and low birth weight all have found to have no
significant impact on self-control.
a.
True
b.
False
25. Research has found that children who are shy, or sometimes referred to as loners, are least likely to be abstainers and
engage in higher rates of criminal activity as technological advances allow them to commit crime behind closed doors.
a.
True
b.
False
26. Life-course persisters may be considered "typical teenagers" who get into minor scrapes, first in adolescence and,
later, in adulthood.
a.
True
b.
False
27. Loeber’s covert pathway begins with minor, underhanded behaviors, such as lying and shoplifting.
a.
True
b.
False
28. Late bloomers combine psychopathology with risk-taking behavior and poor social skills.
a.
True
b.
False
29. Adolescents who do not engage in any deviant behavior, a path that places them outside of the norm for their age
group, are referred to as abstainers.
a.
True
b.
False
30. In regard to public policy initiatives with developmental theory, programs aimed at strengthening children's social-
emotional skills have been the least successful.
a.
True
b.
False
31. The integrative methodology in the early research of __________ formed the basis of today's developmental approach.
a.
Keith J. Bell and Paul M. Klenowski
b.
Eleanor Glueck and Sheldon Glueck
c.
Rolf Loeber and Marc LeBlanc
d.
Marvin Wolfgang and Terri Moffitt
32. Public policy programs based on developmental theory ______.
a.
focus on deterrence through strict punishments
b.
include mechanisms for reintegrating offenders into society
c.
provide self-help treatments aimed at adult offenders
d.
feature multisystemic treatments designed for at-risk youths
33. Developmental theories attempt to provide a natural history of criminal careers by encompassing ______.
a.
its onset, continuation, and termination
b.
delinquency and criminal behaviors
c.
unidimensional and multidimensional treatment efforts
d.
offenders' race/ethnicity, age, and gender
34. Latent trait theorists believe human development is controlled by a master trait present at birth or soon after that
results in ______.
a.
low intellectual development
b.
verbal and physical aggression
c.
an increased propensity to commit crime
d.
a reduced ability to interpret social interactions
35. How do life course theorists view criminality?
a.
As an inflexible process
b.
As a dynamic process
c.
As an opportunity-driven process
d.
As a static process
36. Why is early onset an important factor in crime?
a.
Because the earlier that antisocial behavior is identified, the earlier that turning points can be implemented
b.
Because latent traits may have gone unnoticed or unidentified at birth
c.
Because early onset of antisocial behavior predicts later and more serious criminality
d.
Because early onset of antisocial behavior is void of the crime–non-crime choice mechanism suggested by
Wilson and Herrnstein.
37. One of the key principles of life course theory is that ______.
a.
high verbal ability during childhood predicts persistence
b.
persistent offenders begin their offending careers in late adolescence
c.
the earlier the onset of criminality, the more specialized and violent the criminal career
d.
the seeds of a criminal career are planted early in life
38. According to life course theories, criminal opportunity, effective guardianship, and apprehension risk are __________
factors that can explain the onset, continuance, and desistance from crime.
a.
personal
b.
social
c.
cognitive
d.
situational
39. Which is an inaccurate statement about problem behaviors and problem behavior syndrome?
a.
All varieties of criminal behavior may be a part of a generalized problem behavior syndrome.
b.
People suffering from one problem behavior condition typically exhibit many symptoms of the rest.
c.
The more risk factors a person suffers, the greater the likelihood they will engage in antisocial behavior.
d.
Problem behavior syndrome portrays crime as the product of other social problems.
40. Using data from a longitudinal study of Pittsburgh youth, Loeber identified distinct pathways to crime. Which
pathway begins at an early age with stubborn behavior?
a.
The authority conflict pathway
b.
The covert pathway
c.
The overt pathway
d.
The late bloomer pathway
41. Life course theories integrate personal, social, socialization, situational, and cognitive factors to explain human
behavior. Personality and intelligence are __________ factors that can explain the onset and continuation of criminality.
a.
personal
b.
social
c.
socialization
d.
cognitive
42. Life course theorists examine offending patterns and trends. Terrie Moffit describes adolescent-limited offenders as
______.
a.
angry adolescents
b.
typical teenagers
c.
classic persisters
d.
standard youth
43. Sampson and Laub’s research indicates that building __________ and strong social bonds reduces the likelihood of
long-term deviance.
a.
knowledge
b.
social capital
c.
marketable skills
d.
financial capital
44. Which of the following is not one of the significant life-changing events that reduces criminality, according to Laub
and Sampson?
a.
Buying a car
b.
Joining the military
c.
Getting married
d.
Getting a job
45. Laub and Sampson identify life events that enable adult offenders to desist from crime. Accordingly, they identify
transitions as short-term events embedded in ______.
a.
trajectories
b.
social capital
c.
marital relationships
d.
pathways
46. According to Laub and Sampson, the life-changing events that alter the development of a criminal career are called
______.
a.
turning points
b.
hot spots
c.
event dependencies
d.
cumulative disadvantages
47. Cognitive frameworks that help people quickly process and sort through information are called ______.
a.
schemas
b.
latent traits
c.
criminogenic structure
d.
impulsive controls
48. Which of the following statements is inaccurate in terms of the empirical research supporting Laub and Sampson's
age-graded theory?
a.
Criminality appears to be dynamic and is affected by behaviors occurring over the life course.
b.
People who get involved with the justice system as adolescents may find that their career paths are blocked
well into adulthood.
c.
Criminal career trajectories are impossible to reverse, even if life conditions improve.
d.
Accumulating social capital reduces crime rates.
49. According to latent trait theory, when does a latent trait appear?
a.
At birth or soon after
b.
During childhood
c.
During adolescence
d.
During early adulthood
50. According to Wilson and Herrnstein's crime and human nature view, a criminal incident occurs when an individual
chooses criminal over conventional behavior. What factor influences that choice?
a.
Social capital
b.
A latent trait
c.
Low self-control
d.
Peer influence
51. Which of the following statements regarding gender differences and the general theory of crime is accurate?
a.
The GTC predicts gender differences in self-control and crime.
b.
There is little evidence that males are more impulsive than females.
c.
Females are more likely to persist in crime due to low self-control.
d.
Male juvenile offenders exhibit greater impulse control than female juvenile offenders until approximately 16
years of age when levels equalize.
52. In their general theory of crime, Gottfredson and Hirschi consider the criminal offender and the criminal act as
_______concepts.
a.
separate
b.
balanced
c.
competing
d.
opposite
53. According to the general theory of crime, being adventuresome, physical, and self-centered are all signs that a person
possess ______.
a.
high self-esteem
b.
low self-esteem
c.
high self-control
d.
low self-control
54. Gottfredson and Hirschi trace the root cause of poor self-control to ______.
a.
lack of education
b.
inadequate child-rearing practices
c.
weak social bonds
d.
peer associations
55. Gottfredson and Hirschi claim that the principles of self-control theory ______.
a.
predominantly explain violent crime
b.
predominantly explain property crime
c.
predominantly explain street crime
d.
can explain all varieties of criminal behavior
56. Although criminal offenders are people predisposed to crime, they are not robots who commit crime without restraint.
According to the general theory of crime, change in the frequency of criminal activity is a function of ______.
a.
change in one's level of impulsivity
b.
change in one's level of self-control
c.
change in criminal opportunity
d.
change in environmental conditions
57. A pathway to deviance that begins at an early age with stubborn behavior and leads to property damage, and
eventually escalates to more serious forms of theft and fraud.
a.
Authority conflict pathway
b.
Overt pathway
c.
Covert pathway
d.
Design pathway
58. A pathway to a criminal career that begins with minor aggression and eventually escalates to violent crime.
a.
Overt pathway
b.
Covert pathway
c.
Golden pathway
d.
Authority conflict pathway
59. According to psychologist Terrie Moffit, most young offenders follow one of two paths; adolescent-limited and
______.
a.
life course persisters
b.
age of onsetters
c.
adolescent pre-disposers
d.
abstainers
60. Adolescents who do not engage in any deviant behavior, a path which places them outside the norm for their age
group are called ______.
a.
abstainers
b.
absentee criminals
c.
non-utilitarians
d.
double marginalizationers
61. Catherine was adopted at the age of 6. She is currently 14 years of age, attends public high school in Baton Rouge,
Louisiana, and her mother is a stay-at-home mom, while her father recently lost his job as a lumberjack due to new
deforestation laws. Using this information, answer the following questions. Catherine has been diagnosed with Problem
Behavior Syndrome after she began using drugs, began experimenting sexually, and her health declined which is one
reason she unsuccessfully attempted suicide. According to PBS, of the three subcategories of the theory, Catherine’s issue
most likely is ______.
a.
personal
b.
functional
c.
environmental
d.
overt
62. Doctors have told Catherine’s parents that her behavior is lacking thought or deliberation in decision making. This
behavior would be considered ______.
a.
impulsive
b.
imprudent
c.
controlling
d.
age graded
63. If Catherine’s criminal behavior began with minor behavior (shoplifting, lying) and eventually escalated to more
serious forms of criminality, such as using stolen credit cards or dealing drugs, she most likely would be considered as
taking which of the following pathways?
a.
Covert
b.
Authority conflict
c.
Overt
d.
Avoidance
64. _______________ suggests there are multiple trajectories or paths into a criminal career and that there are subgroups
within a population that follow distinctively different developmental routes toward and away from a criminal career.
65. __________________________ theory focuses on changes in criminality over the time brought about by shifts in
experience and events which occur as one ages.
66. The propensity to commit crime is stable; those who have it continue to commit crime over their life course. This is
known as ____________________.
67. Latent trait theories assume that a _______________ exists that guides human development.
68. ___________ theory is the view that a stable unchanging feature or characteristic, such as defective intelligence,
makes people crime prone over the life course.
69. The concept of _______________ suggests that life events have a significant influence on future development.
70. _____________ is the view that kids who begin engaging in antisocial behaviors at a very young age are the ones
most at risk for a criminal career.
71. In regard to the subcategories of problem behavior syndrome, family dysfunction, unemployment, and school
misconduct all are examples of _______________ problem behaviors.
72. Positive, life-sustaining relations with individuals and institutions are known as _______________.
73. According to Sampson and Laub, _________________ refer to the life-changing events that alter the development of
a criminal career.
74. The view that negative life events are connected and produce a hostile view of people and relationships, preference for
immediate rewards, and a cynical view of conventional norms is known as ___________________.
75. The tendency of prior social problems to produce future ones that accumulate and undermine success are known as
________________.
76. Cognitive frameworks known as ______________ help people quickly process and sort though information.
77. Lacking in thought or deliberation in decision making, an _________ person lacks close attention to details, has
organizational problems, and is distracted easily.
78. ________________ refers to a person's ability to exercise restraint and control over his or her feelings, emotions,
reactions, and behaviors.
79. Gottfredson and Hirschi’s developmental theory that links crime and impulsivity and a lack of self-control is known as
_____________.
80. The __________________ pathway escalates to aggressive acts beginning with aggression and leading to physical
fighting and eventually violent crime.
81. The ___________________ pathway begins at an early age with stubborn behavior and leads to defiance and then to
authority avoidance.
82. Adolescents who do not engage in any deviant behavior are called ______.
83. According to psychologist Terrie Moffitt, _________________ are kids who get into minor scrapes as youth but
whose misbehavior ends when they enter adulthood.
84. _______________________ refers to those who begin to engage in antisocial behavior after the onset of a psychiatric
disorder and their criminal behavior is attributed to the symptoms of the disorder.
85. Provide a summary of developmental theory's evolution including those theorists important in this theory's history.
86. Discuss the two distinct developmental viewpoints - life-course and latent trait theories.
87. Compare and contrast the terms population heterogeneity and state dependence.
88. Trajectory theories assume there are more than one type of criminal and more than one criminal path. Provide
examples and explain how this is possible.
89. Identify and discuss the principles of life course theories.
90. How is age of onset related to crime and criminality?
91. What is problem behavior syndrome and how is it linked to criminality?
92. Explain what is meant by “continuity of crime” and its relevance to life course theory.
93. Define and discuss Sampson and Laub's turning points in a criminal career. Include the concept of social capital in
your response.
94. Explain the relationship between relationship/marital status and future perpetration of crime. What theory best
explains this relationship in your opinion? Explain your answer.
95. According to Wilson and Herrnstein's crime and human nature concept, how and why does crime happen?
96. What are latent traits and how are latent traits linked to the onset and persistence of crime?
97. Gottfredson and Hirschi link the propensity to commit crime to two latent traits—an impulsive personality and a lack
of self-control. Explain how these traits result in crime.
98. Identify and describe the various pathways to crime as categorized by Rolf Loeber.
99. Articulate the basic principles of trajectory theory and explain their relationship to crime and criminality.
100. List and describe the various public policy implications associated with developmental theory.
