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True / False
1. Social process criminologists focus on socialization rather than the environment when explaining crime.
a.
True
b.
False
2. What separates social learning theory from social control and social reaction theories is that social learning theory fails
to recognize that criminal activity can be reversed and criminals can be turned around by proper socialization and
interactions.
a.
True
b.
False
3. Anyone can turn to antisocial behavior if their socialization is damaging and/or destructive and is not solely a lower-
class phenomenon.
a.
True
b.
False
4. Social control theory suggests that people can only learn techniques and attitudes of crime from close relationships with
criminal peers.
a.
True
b.
False
5. While there is a link between criminal offending and family relations, there is no research which supports family
dysfunction leading children to have long-term social problems.
a.
True
b.
False
6. Research has failed to find a correlation between being the target of abuse at a young age and subsequent episodes of
delinquency and violence as one ages.
a.
True
b.
False
7. The family–crime relationship is significant across racial, ethnic, and gender lines.
a.
True
b.
False
8. The correlation between crime perpetration and poor education is well established. Due to national dropout rates
increasing by nearly 25 percent over the last seven years, criminologists predict an epic increase in criminal activity over
the next decade.
a.
True
b.
False
9. According to the U.S. Department of Education, minority students, especially boys, face much harsher discipline in
public schools than other students.
a.
True
b.
False
10. The totality of research on the effect of dropping out of high school indicates one fact—high school dropouts face a
significant chance of entering a criminal career.
a.
True
b.
False
11. The delinquent peer-crime relationship does not apply to popular kids because they are too busy to commit crime.
a.
True
b.
False
12. Religious participation seems to be a more significant inhibitor of crime than merely having religious beliefs and
values.
a.
True
b.
False
13. Differential association theory holds that people learn criminal attitudes and behavior during their adolescence from
close, trusted friends or relatives.
a.
True
b.
False
14. Sutherland's research on crime led him to dispute the notion that crime was a function of the inherent inadequacy of
people in the lower classes.
a.
True
b.
False
15. According to learning theories, even corporate executives may be exposed to procriminal definitions and learn to
neutralize moral constraints.
a.
True
b.
False
16. The stronger a person's commitment to conventional institutions, individuals, and processes, the less likely they are to
commit crime.
a.
True
b.
False
17. Research affirms Hirschi's contention that delinquents are detached loners whose bonds to friends have been broken.
a.
True
b.
False
18. Research indicates that people who are labeled with one positive trait are assumed to have other positive traits.
a.
True
b.
False
19. A major premise of social reaction theory is that the law is differentially constructed and applied, depending on the
offenders.
a.
True
b.
False
20. Primary deviance involves resocialization into a deviant role and produces a deviance amplification effect.
a.
True
b.
False
21. According to labeling theory, stigma helps lock people into deviant careers.
a.
True
b.
False
22. A major premise of social reaction theory is that the law is differentially applied, depending solely on the race of the
victim.
a.
True
b.
False
23. According to research, labeling often comes after, rather than before, chronic offending.
a.
True
b.
False
24. Empirical evidence fails to support the view that labeling plays a significant role in persistent offending.
a.
True
b.
False
25. Labels amplify deviant behavior rather than deterring people from future criminality.
a.
True
b.
False
26. Labels are bestowed in a biased way, which means the poor and minority groups are more likely than others to receive
negative levels.
a.
True
b.
False
27. The public policy effects of social process theories have been felt mainly by young offenders who are viewed as being
more savable than hardened criminals.
a.
True
b.
False
28. Despite the good intentions, stigma-reducing programs have not met with great success.
a.
True
b.
False
29. The major drawback of diversion programs is that by law they can only be applied to those under the age of 18 and for
nonserious crimes.
a.
True
b.
False
30. Programs based on social reaction theory attempt to shield people from criminal labels by diverting them from the
system in order to avoid stigma.
a.
True
b.
False
31. Restitution sentences can be used to keep offenders in the community while having to pay back society for their
crimes.
a.
True
b.
False
32. Social process theories have had a major influence on public policy initiatives over the last 60+ years.
a.
True
b.
False
Multiple Choice
33. Social process theories share one basic concept. Which is it?
a.
All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, are basically good.
b.
All people, regardless of their race, class, or gender, have the potential to become delinquents or criminals.
c.
Criminal behavior is genetic, regardless of race, class, or gender.
d.
Lower-class people, regardless of race or gender, are more prone to commit crime.
34. Social control theory suggests that ______.
a.
crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken
b.
only males have significant potential to become criminals
c.
crime is a learned behavior
d.
people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such
35. Social reaction theory suggests that ______.
a.
crime occurs when the forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken
b.
only males have significant potential to become criminals
c.
crime is a learned behavior
d.
people become criminals when significant members of society label them as such
36. _________ refers to a style of parenting with parents who are supportive and who effectively control their children in
a noncoercive way.
a.
Parent pathology
b.
Low frequency parenting
c.
Parental efficacy
d.
Low coercion parenting
37. All of the following family factors are associated with delinquency except ______.
a.
inconsistent discipline
b.
poor parental supervision
c.
noncoercive parenting
d.
drug abusing parents
38. Adolescents who do not receive affection from their parents during childhood are ______.
a.
more likely to be depressed and suicidal as they mature
b.
more likely to use illicit drugs and be more aggressive as they mature
c.
more likely to suffer mental impairment as they mature
d.
more likely to engage in violent crime as they mature
39. Children who fail in school offend more frequently than those who graduate. According to research on national
dropout rates, which of the following group sets has “little more than a fifty–fifty chance” of graduating high school?
a.
White Americans and Italian Americans
b.
Hispanic Americans and African Americans
c.
Asian Americans and Italian Americans
d.
Native Americans and white Americans
40. According to the author, which of the following is accurate regarding why troubled kids choose delinquent peers?
a.
Troubled kids do so because they are not involved in after-school activities.
b.
Troubled kids do so because they fail to understand truancy and delinquency laws.
c.
Troubled kids do so out of necessity rather than desire.
d.
Troubled kids are biologically drawn or attracted to troublemakers.
41. When examining the relationship between delinquent peers and fear of punishment, ____ delinquent peers may
outweigh the fear of punishment.
a.
loyalty to
b.
fear of
c.
hostility from
d.
skills learned from
42. Religion and belief impact criminal behavior. Even children in high crime areas are better able to resist drug use if
they ______.
a.
attend self-esteem building programs
b.
attend religious services
c.
have religious beliefs
d.
have parents with religious beliefs
43. Which of the following is not one of the major principles of differential association?
a.
Criminal behavior is learned.
b.
Learning criminal behavior involves assimilating techniques.
c.
Differential associations may vary in meaning, reliability, and intention.
d.
A person becomes a criminal when he or she perceives more favorable than unfavorable consequences to
violating the law.
44. Edwin Sutherland’s differential association theory states that ______.
a.
criminal behavior is a product of impaired social bonds
b.
criminal behavior is learned like any other behavior
c.
criminal behavior is a function of educational inequality within the lower class
d.
criminal behavior is a function of media exposure
45. Which of the following research findings supports the core principles of differential association theory?
a.
Criminal and delinquent acts are rational and systematic.
b.
Differential association accounts for spontaneous acts of violence.
c.
Differential association theory involves circular reasoning.
d.
Crime appears to be intergenerational.
46. The process of _____ refers to moving in and out of delinquency or shifting between conventional and deviant values.
a.
transfer
b.
waft
c.
drift
d.
sway
47. Which of the following is not a criticism of differential association theory?
a.
Differential association theory fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions.
b.
Differential association theory assumes criminal and delinquent acts to be rational and systematic.
c.
Differential association theory can account for isolated, psychopathic killing.
d.
Differential association theory ignores spontaneous acts of violence.
48. Neutralization theory points out that ______.
a.
criminal behavior is learned in much the same way that conformity is learned
b.
even the most committed criminals and delinquents are not involved in criminality all the time
c.
criminality is a product of weak self-concept and poor self-esteem
d.
law is differentially applied, benefiting those who hold economic and social power and penalizing the
powerless
49. Criminals sometimes neutralize wrongdoings by maintaining that the crime victim “had it coming.” This is an
example of which technique of neutralization?
a.
Denial of injury
b.
Denial of the victim
c.
Appeal to higher loyalties
d.
Denial of responsibility
50. Criminals sometimes neutralize wrongdoings by “appealing to higher loyalties.” Which of the following would be an
example of that technique?
a.
Vandalizing the home of a disliked neighbor
b.
Attacking someone who is arguing with a friend
c.
Stealing from a large department store that “has plenty of money”
d.
Blaming the police for being unfair
51. Do criminals really neutralize? What does Topalli's research on street criminals indicate?
a.
Street criminals frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding persons.
b.
Street criminals do not experience guilt that requires neutralization.
c.
Street criminals experience guilt and shame that require neutralization.
d.
Street criminals are often embarrassed about showing pride in their criminal accomplishments.
52. Travis Hirschi states that the social bonds a person maintains with society are divided into four main elements. Which
of the following is not one of these elements?
a.
Attachment
b.
Commitment
c.
Affection
d.
Involvement
53. Travis Hirschi tested the principal hypotheses of social control theory. While evidence was strong and supportive,
what is the most controversial aspect of Hirschi's conclusions?
a.
Youths who are strongly attached to parents were less likely to commit crime.
b.
Youths who were involved in conventional activities were less likely to engage in criminal behavior.
c.
Youths who maintained weak, distant relationships with people tended toward delinquency.
d.
Any form of social attachment is beneficial, even to deviant peers and parents.
54. Which of the following issues has been raised regarding the validity of social control theory?
a.
Delinquency may lead to weakened social bonds, not vice versa.
b.
Social control theory has never been empirically tested.
c.
Social control theory applies primarily to lower-class youth and does not explain the criminal behavior of
middle- and upper-class youth.
d.
Social control theory relies too heavily on social relationships that are difficult to measure.
55. In its purest form, __________ theory argues that even crimes such as murder, rape, and assault are only bad or evil
because people label them as such.
a.
social control
b.
social reaction
c.
social structure
d.
social process
56. According to Lemert, __________ involves norm violations or crimes that have little influence on the actor and,
therefore, can be quickly forgotten.
a.
primary deviance
b.
secondary deviance
c.
all criminal behavior
d.
a moral lapse
57. The boyhood friend of a convicted murderer is interviewed by the media and reports that the offender was withdrawn,
suspicious, and negativistic as a youth. This is an example of ______.
a.
introspective reading
b.
retrospective reading
c.
enhanced reading
d.
reflective reading
58. Which of the following statements does not reflect labeling theory?
a.
Labeling theory identifies the role played by social agents in crime causation.
b.
Labeling theory recognizes that criminality is a disease or a pathological behavior.
c.
Labeling theory distinguishes between criminal acts and criminal careers.
d.
Labeling theory focuses attention on the social interactions and reactions that shape individuals and their
behavior.
59. __________ is a process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out of the mainstream of society and offenders
begin their escalating cycle of deviance.
a.
Reactive stigmata
b.
Differential morality
c.
Retrospective association
d.
Deviance amplification
60. A competency hearing in which a person is declared “mentally ill,” or a trial where someone in found to be a “rapist”
are forms of __________, according to Harold Garfinkle.
a.
successful demonizing rituals
b.
successful shame rituals
c.
successful stigmatizing ceremonies
d.
successful degradation ceremonies
61. The process of becoming stigmatized by crime labels is interactive. Labeling theorists blame the establishment of
criminal careers on ______.
a.
parents
b.
crime control agencies
c.
teachers
d.
the criminals themselves
62. Programs of rehabilitation that remove offenders from the normal channels of the criminal justice process, thus
avoiding the stigma of a criminal label.
a.
Diversion programs
b.
Acceleration programs
c.
Diffusion programs
d.
Regeneration programs
63. Tom, Dick, and Harry are three teens from the Columbus, OH area. Using the information below, answer the
following questions. The three boys got in trouble for skipping school and for possession of stolen goods. They told their
parents that they didn’t want to steal the items but their friends were doing it and they felt they needed to support their
friends. This would most likely be explained by which subcomponent of techniques of neutralization?
a.
Appeal to higher loyalty
b.
Denial of victim
c.
Denial of responsibility
d.
Condemnation of the condemners
64. After being kicked out of school, Tom and Dick decide to vandalize the property of the teacher who turned them. The
boys were heard saying “had it coming,” and deserved the actions based on what he had done to them. According to
Techniques of Neutralization theory, which of the subcomponents of the theory best fits this example?
a.
Denial of victim
b.
Denial of responsibility
c.
Denial of injury
d.
Appeal to higher loyalties
65. Tom, Dick, and Harry, rather than facing a juvenile sentence, were forced to repair the harm done toward the teacher
by painting over the vandalism and paying the costs for any damaged property. This is an example of ______.
a.
Restitution
b.
Differential reinforcement
c.
Racial profiling
d.
Retrospective reading
66. _______________ theory refers to the view that criminality is a function of people's interactions with various
organizations, institutions, and practices in society.
67. _____________ theory explains the view that people acquire the techniques and attitudes of crime from close
relationships with criminal peers.
68. _______________ theory holds that people become criminal when significant members of society brand them as such
and they these brands as part of their personal identity.
69. ____________________ theory holds that everyone has the potential to become criminal, but most people are
controlled by their bonds to society.
70. ___________________ describes the ability of parents to be supportive of their children and effectively control them
in noncoercive ways.
71. ___________________ theory views that people commit crime when their social learning leads them to perceive more
definitions favoring crime than favoring conventional behavior.
72. _________________ results from the exposure to opposing norms, attitudes, and definitions of right and wrong, moral
and immoral.
73. First proposed by Akers in collaboration with Burgess in the 1960s, _________________ theory is a version of social
learning theory that employs both differential association concepts and elements of psychological learning theory.
74. Sykes and Matza's writings on ___________________ help describe how and why people justify their criminal
behavior into more conventional values and attitudes of law-abiding society.
75. According to Techniques of Neutralization theory, ______________ views the word as a corrupt place with a dog-eat-
dog code because everybody involved is on the take.
76. According to Techniques of Neutralization theory, _________________ refers to novice criminals who are caught up
between supporting their peer groups while abiding by the rules of society.
77. The movement in and out of delinquency, shifting between conventional and deviant values is referred to as
____________________.
78. A strong moral sense which renders a person incapable of harming others or violating social norms is referred to as
_____________________.
79. ______________________ refers to the reassessment of a person's past to fit a current generalized label.
80. ______________________ is a form of deviance or crime that has little or no long-term influence on the violator.
81. Howard Becker referred to _____________________ as people who create rules that reflect the values of those in
power rather than any objective, such as someone who campaigns against violence in the media and wants laws passed to
restrict the content of television shows.
82. ________________ occurs when parents are alienated from their children, and their negative labeling reduces their
children's self-image and increases delinquency.
83. Process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out of mainstream society and locks them into a cycle of
violence known as ___________________.
84. _____________ programs of rehabilitation removes offenders from the normal channels of the criminal justice
process, thus enabling them to avoid the stigma of a criminal label.
85. Permitting an offender to repay the victim or do useful work in the community rather than face the stigma of prison or
jail is known as ___________________.
86. Explain how one's socialization contributes to delinquent and criminal behaviors.
87. Describe the major premises of the three branches of social process theory—social learning theory, social control
theory, and social reaction (labeling) theory.
88. Explain the influence of family relations on delinquency and crime.
89. Explain how violence and abuse are linked to future criminal behavior.
90. Discuss how the educational setting influences crime.
91.
Discuss how dropping out of high school is associated with delinquency and crime.
92. Discuss the association between delinquent peers and crime in general and within the context of social control theory.
93. How do religion and belief impact criminality?
94. One of the most prominent social learning theories is differential association theory. Discuss the major assumptions
and principles of this theory.
95. List and explain neutralization theory; how does it apply to criminal offending? What types of crimes would you
believe it would apply to most often? Explain.
96. Travis Hirschi links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind people to society. Identify and
discuss the elements of the social bond and how they impede crime.
97. Discuss the key points of labeling theory and the consequences of labeling. Include in your discussion the concepts of
primary and secondary deviance.
98. Compare and contrast social learning, social control, and social reaction theories.
99. Discuss how social process theories have influenced public policy. Provide examples of policies and programs based
on social process theories.
100. Link social process theory to crime prevention efforts.
