Unlock document.
This document is partially blurred.
Unlock all pages and 1 million more documents.
Get Access
Chapter 11. Communism, Postcommunism, and the Good Society
Chapter Overview
This chapter begins by discussing the main features shared by communist regimes in the
twentieth century. The first is rule by a communist party that controls the state. In communist
parties, power is concentrated in the hands of a very small number of leaders who determine
public policy for a country. Communist parties have a separate organizational structure from
states in communist regimes. Public policy is made in the top ranks of the party and implemented
by state agencies. The second feature of communist regimes is a state-owned, centrally planned
economy in which state planners determine what is produced, the quantities produced, and the
prices of products.
The chapter then discusses China and Russia as postcommunist regimes. Russia is no longer
ruled by a communist party, but its current politics and economics have been strongly affected by
decades of communist party rule. China is still ruled by a communist party, but China is no
longer a communist country as communist countries were defined for most of the twentieth
century.
Russia is a personalist regime whose president rules without effective constitutional or
organizational constraints on his power. Citizens have no recourse to independent courts or
guarantees of free and fair elections. Multiparty elections are held on a regular basis, but
electoral rules are tilted strongly in favor of the ruling party. The regime has benefited from a
political culture in which many Russians support a strong ruler and a paternalistic state. President
Putin and his allies benefit from an economy heavily dependent on exports of oil and gas and
riddled with corruption.
China is a one-party regime. The leaders of its Communist Party are as firmly committed to
retaining party rule as party leaders were in the first decades of communist rule in China. They
use very different means of doing so. They rely on markets and international trade to produce
economic growth, have become more flexible in their ideology, and seek to co-opt economic and
social elites. The party has also allowed more personal freedom as long as citizens do not use
their freedom to organize to challenge party rule. These changes have won the support of many
Chinese for the Chinese Communist Party. But the consequences of its policies include growing
economic inequality, pervasive corruption, and extreme environmental damage. These problems
have led to numerous protests.
The chapter ends with a comparison of capabilities between Russia and China. Although Russia
has a higher per capita income, China has rapidly closed the gap in infant mortality and literacy.
It has a far superior safety record as measured by homicides. Russia scores higher on democracy.
285
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter students will be able to do the following:
11.1 Understand the impact of the collapse of the Soviet Union on the remaining communist
regimes.
11.2 Describe the two main features of communist regimes in the 20th century and explain the
flaws of centrally planned economies based on state-owned firms.
11.3 Describe the history, state, relations between state and society, political culture, and political
economy of Russia.
11.4 Describe the history, state, relations between state and society, political culture, and political
economy of China.
11.5 Compare and contrast capabilities in Russia and China.
Chapter Outline
I. INTRODUCTION
A. The chapter is divided into four parts
4. Comparison of capabilities in Russia and China
1. In the twentieth century, communist regimes shared two features
a. Communist party control of the state
b. State-owned and centrally planned economies
4. The Communist Party and the state had separate organizations
a. Party leaders made policy decisions
5. Tight party control over organizations in society
a. No other political parties were allowed to compete
b. Trade unions and other organizations were controlled by the party
c. Surveillance, arrests and terror using KGB
B. State-owned, centrally planned economies
1. Industrial firms were all owned by the state
2. Central planners coordinated the firms’ activities
a. What to produce
b. How much to produce
c. Price of products
3. Farms were collectively owned or owned by the state
a. State told farms what to produce
b. Prices of crops set by state
4. Trade mainly with other countries controlled by communist parties
5. Flaws in state-owned, centrally planned economies
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
286
6. Few incentives to increase productivity
a. Workers knew they would not lose their jobs
b. Managers had no competition from other firms
c. Best way to meet quotas was to use time-tested production methods
III. RUSSIA
A. Introduction
1. Largest land area of any country
2. Population of approximately 142 million—little less than half that of the U.S.
3. In 2012, largest producer of natural gas and second-largest producer of oil
4. Approximately 80 percent of the population is ethnically Russian, but more
than 100 different ethnic groups make up the rest of the population
5. Many assumed it would adopt free markets and become a democracy
6. Instead it has become an authoritarian personalist regime
B. Historical background
1. Autocratic czarist regime that ruled Russia since 16th century collapsed in
1917 during World War I
2. Lenin led the Bolsheviks in the Russian Revolution of 1917
3. Bolsheviks had no blueprint of what to do and devised policies after taking
power
a. Suppressed other parties, giving Communist Party a monopoly of power
b. Created a security force, later to become the KGB, to collect intelligence,
arrest and terrorize opponents
c. Nationalized banks and large businesses, but left large parts of the
economy in private hands
4. Stalin’s revolution from above
a. Economic revolution from above
i. Agriculture collectivized and resistance crushed by force
ii. Ended private ownership of banks and firms and created a state-
owned, centrally planned economy
iii. Economy used to produce power plants, steel, railways at expense of
consumer goods
b. Expansion of the power of the KGB to destroy remaining opposition to
Stalin in the party, state, and military
5. Changes after Stalin
a. Stalin’s successors designed a less personalized, more collegial form of
governance to limit the powers of one individual
b. Soviet politics became more stable, and the economy grew in 1950s and
1960s
287
c. Most outside observers viewed the Soviet Union as a “superpower” along
with the United States
d. Soviet economic growth slowed to a crawl in the 1980s
e. Mikhail Gorbachev’s efforts to reform the Soviet Union led to its collapse
b. President Putin’s goal was to centralize power in Moscow and create what
is known as a “power vertical”
5. Authoritarian power sharing
a. President Putin created a system of personal rule in which he is the
ultimate authority
b. Personal relationships rather than constitutional rules determine who has
power
c. President Putin governs with the help of an inner circle of trusted advisers
d. In addition to this inner circle, he relies on other high ranking officials,
most importantly those in the Federal Security Service (FSB)
e. Politics is largely about struggles among rival networks comprised of
wealthy business people and high ranking state officials to accumulate
power and wealth
f. Two main networks
i. One centered on FSB, managers of large state owned enterprises in oil
and gas, conservative leaders of Russian Orthodox Church who are
critical of Western values
ii. Other is business people and officials more sympathetic to markets and
who want closer ties to West
iii. Members of both networks in struggle to increase their wealth and
influence over state policies
iv. Putin is the arbiter among these competing networks but has generally
favored the one centered on the FSB
v. Since 2012, Putin has increasingly sided with the network centered on
the FSB
6. A weak state
a. State is centralized but remains weak; World Bank ranks it below Brazil
and China in effectiveness and far below Germany, Great Britain and
Sweden
b. Corruption is a major cause of state weakness
c. In rankings of corruption done by Transparency International, Russian
corruption is worse than that of several poor sub-Saharan African
countries
D. State and society
1. Like other authoritarian leaders, President Putin uses three main strategies to
control society
a. Providing benefits
i. Funneled rising revenues from oil sales into the economy
ii. Members of Russia’s middle class benefited from increased incomes
iii. Main beneficiaries were members of Putin’s inner circle and of
networks allied with Putin
b. Using rigged multiparty elections
i. The dominant political party is United Russia
ii. Other political parties are allowed to participate in elections because
allowing limited competition provides useful information about public
preferences and grievances
289
iii. Multiparty elections allow regime to maintain Russia is a democracy
iv. Elections are managed to ensure that United Russia wins
c. Using repression
i. Stripped the oligarchs of political power
ii. Suppressed independent groups including those advocating human
rights, those protesting environmental destruction, and social media
iii. Arrests, trials, and imprisonment to silence critics
2. By 2011, Putin was losing popular support despite these efforts to control
society for three main reasons
a. Growing anger over corruption, especially among middle class
b. No way for citizens to hold officials accountable or to change the regime
c. Increase in number of citizens having self-expression values
3. Large scale political protests in late 2011 and early 2012, but not sustained
a. Protestors lacked organizations capable of effective, sustained collective
action
b. Middle class not united in political views against Putin
4. In 2014, Putin’s popularity began to rise
a. Initially because of the Summer Olympics in Sochi, Russia, in which
Russian athletes did extremely well
b. Public approval increased even more after Putin’s decision to seize Crimea
from the Ukraine in the name of protecting ethnic Russians
c. His growing popularity made it easier for him to suppress critics by calling
them anti-Russian and puppets of the United States
E. Political culture
1. Shaped by long history of authoritarian rule
2. Collapse of Soviet Union and emergence of Russia as an independent country
seemed to promise a democratic future
a. Majority of Russians supported the idea of a multiparty democracy in
1991
b. Since then, support for democracy has ebbed
c. Democracy came to be associated with unstable politics, economic
disruption, and falling living standards
d. Many Russians welcomed President Putin’s leadership with improved
standards of living, greater political stability, and greater Russian
influence in the world
3. Three dimensions of political culture
a. Pride in nationality
i. 46 percent of Russians proud of nationality, which is lower than level
in U.S., but higher than that in Germany or China
ii. Three versions of nationalism including desire to expand Russia’s
control over countries formerly part of the Soviet Union, xenophobic
nationalism toward ethnic minorities, and moderate nationalism
rejecting imperial or xenophobic nationalism
b. Citizens’ view of their role in the political process
i. Many Russians say they have little say in politics, and in 2011 61%
took no interest in politics
290
ii. In 2012, a majority favored a strong leader who did not have to bother
with parliaments and elections
c. What citizens expect from government
i. Many Russians want a paternalistic state that looks out for them
ii. In surveys, many more Russians say the state should take care of
ensuring that everyone is cared for than say people should take more
responsibility to provide for themselves
4. Putin’s use of political culture to build support
a. Appeals to citizens who have a paternalistic view of state
b. Draws selectively on Russian culture and values of the Russian Orthodox
Church to reinforce obedience to the ruler
c. Calls for a “Russia for Russians,” to appeal to Russians hostile to ethnic
minorities
d. Presents himself as the defender of Russian identity against decadent
Western values
e. Uses a version of imperialistic nationalism to justify seizure of Crimea in
the name of protecting ethnic Russians living there
f. Appeals to Russian pride by increasing the influence of Russia in
European and world affairs
F. Political economy
1. A country’s political economy is defined by the way in which politics and
economics interact to produce income and wealth and how income and wealth
are distributed among the population.
2. Russia made transition from a state-owned, centrally-planned economy to a
mix of state and markets in the 1990s.
3. President Boris Yeltsin attempted to make the transition from the failing
Soviet economy to a market economy as quickly as possible using four
strategies known collectively as shock therapy.
a. Let markets set prices rather than government planners
b. Slash state spending to cut government budget deficits
c. Encourage foreign direct investments
d. Sell state owned-firms to private investors
4. None of the policies worked as expected.
5. The economy stabilized and economic growth returned under the leadership of
President Putin.
6. Much of this growth was due to rising world prices for oil and gas, and these
7. Consequences of this new political economy:
a. Growing income inequality
8. Economic vulnerability
a. Oil and gas exports have driven most of Russia’s growth.
b. Sustaining this growth will be increasingly difficult.
i. Yields from existing oil fields have begun to decline and opening new
fields will be very expensive.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
291
9. Political vulnerability
i. Declining oil and gas prices cut into government revenues, which have
enabled Putin to buy support from state employees and pensioners.
ii. Declining oil and gas revenues will make it more difficult to balance
competing networks of extremely wealthy Russians and high-level
officials.
iii. Declining revenues will also make it more difficult to maintain social
peace in poorer regions of Russia and in predominantly Muslim
regions.
iv. In summary, declining revenues will make it more difficult for
President Putin to solve the twin problems of power-sharing and
authoritarian control.
IV. CHINA
A. Introduction
1. Largest population of any country—approximately 1.3 billion
2. Since 1980, one of fastest economic growth rates in history
3. Second-largest economy in world measured by purchasing power parity
4. Problems of growing income inequality and extensive environmental damage
B. Historical background
1. Imperial China
a. Traces origins to 221 BC
b. Centralized state that ruled area larger than continental United States
c. Restricted European trade access
d. Forced to open China to trade following defeat by British in the Opium
War (1839–1843)
e. Other European countries also demanded access to trade
g. Japanese invasion in 1937 gave the Chinese Communist Party, now led by
Mao Zedong, the opportunity to regroup
i. Nationalists forced to retreat into the interior of China
ii. Communists used the war years to build support
h. Civil War
i. After the Japanese were defeated by the United States, civil war
began
ii. Communist troops drove the Nationalists out of China
iii. October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong announces founding of People’s
Republic of China
3. Mao’s China (1949–1976)
a. Following the Soviet model
i. Chinese followed the Soviet economic model
ii. By mid-1950s, Mao became increasingly critical of the Soviet
model and initiated dramatic changes in China
b. Great Leap Forward (1958–1960)
i. Goal to catch up economically with West in 15 years
ii. Used mass mobilization of peasants and workers
iii. Now remembered mainly for its spectacular failures, including a
famine that resulted in the deaths of an estimated 30 million people
iv. Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping took lead in restoring economic
growth.
c. Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)
i. Mao believed that these leaders’ policies were counterrevolutionary
ii. Launched the Cultural Revolution to purge the country of “capitalist
roaders” and rid China of old culture, habits, ideas, and customs
iii. Cultural Revolution ended in chaos, with rival Red Guards fighting
each other
iv. After Mao’s death in 1976 new leaders set China on new course
4. Deng Xiaoping’s reforms and consequences
a. Deng Xiaoping emerged as new leader of China
b. Initiated major new “reform and opening” economic policies
i. Dismantled collective farming—replaced with family farming
ii. Opened China to world markets and trade
iii. Allowed privately owned businesses
iv. Allowed businesses jointly owned by private entrepreneurs and
local governments
c. Policies led to rapid economic growth
5. Tiananmen Square protests (1989)
a. Deng’s economic reforms brought benefits to many but also created anger
at the corruption that benefited Communist Party elites
b. Student protestors filled Tiananmen Square in Beijing
c. PLA suppressed protests with great loss of life
6. China since Deng Xiaoping
a. After Deng’s death in 1997, Chinese leaders continued his basic strategy
i. Rely on markets and international trade to drive economic growth
293
ii. Maintain Chinese Communist Party control
b. Central issue is how this strategy can continue to work
c. Rapid economic growth has created groups in society with expectations
that may potentially challenge Communist Party rule
C. The state
1. Chinese Communist Party (CCP) controls the state
2. Political power is in the hands of the party’s leader and a small number of
other top party officials
3. Central party institutions
a. Politburo (24 members) and the Politburo’s Standing Committee (7
members) are where major policies are decided
b. Secretariat
i. Headed by general secretary, who is always the leader of the party
ii. Secretariat has responsibilities for overseeing implementation of
party decisions and managing party’s personnel
iii. General secretary is expected to step down after two terms in office
c. Central Committee (around 200 members)
i. In party constitution, this body elects the members of the Politburo
and Secretariat
ii. In practice, it simply approves names given to it by the Politburo
iii. Party constitution also gives it a policy-making role, but this exists
more in theory than in fact
iv. Its members are all influential members of the Communist Party
with high-ranking positions in the central government or in
provinces
d. National Party Congress (over 2000 members)
i. The representative body for the all the members of the CCP
ii. In the party constitution, it has the authority to elect members of the
Central Committee, but in reality, this is not the case
iii. Largely a rubber stamp for decisions made at higher levels of the
party
4. Recent leadership changes and power sharing in the Party
a. In 2012, the party chose the first new Politburo in a decade
b. The party leader is Xi Jinping
c. Managing power sharing between two main factions in party
i. Elitist faction whose family members have been top party leaders in
past and who generally have sympathies for entrepreneurs and middle
class
ii. Populist faction who come from modest family backgrounds and voice
concerns of farmers, workers, and urban poor
iii. Xi Jinping is from elitist faction and six of the seven members of the
Standing Committee of the Politburo are from this faction
iv. The two factions are more balanced in the Politburo
5. Relationship between the Communist Party and the state
a. The two have separate organizational structures
b. State agencies implement party decisions
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
294
