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Developing the Learning Experience
DESIGNING AN EFFECTIVE LESSON PLAN
Whereas Choices & Connections is an important tool for thinking about the key elements that
students should be exposed to in their studies, learning outcomes are achieved largely by the
planned experiences that you provide students. Effective lesson plans are more than lists of
topics to be covered or activities to be completed. Effective lesson plans have three
ESTABLISHING LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the center of every lesson are learning objectives, or goals for what learners should be able
to do after the lesson. Traditionally, learning objectives fall into one of three learning domains
(Krathwohl, Bloom, & Bertram, 1973):
• The cognitive domain, where learning focuses on the development of knowledge and
understanding
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Learning Domain
Learning Objective
Cognitive
The learner will accurately list and explain in her or his own
words three empathic response skills.
Affective
The learner will discuss personal
benefits of improving empathic
listening skills.
Psychomotor
The learner will demonstrate nonverbal attending skills that are
consistent with empathic listening.
When writing learning objectives, use action verbs to indicate measurable behaviors that you
expect learners to perform as a result of the lesson. In other words, what evidence will you be
looking for to determine that students have learned the lesson? Some examples of such action
verbs include the following:
• Apply • Operate • Choose
The use of such action verbs clarifies the kind and level of learning that you want students to
achieve. It also shifts the focus from teacher activity (e.g., lecturing, facilitating, conducting) to
student learning (e.g., explaining, organizing, synthesizing). Student learning is then measured
through homework assignments, journals, traditional examinations, written essays, individual
or group projects, and the like.
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Experiences: An Integrated Approach to Designing College Courses (2003) and Grant
Wiggins and Jay McTighe’s, Understanding by Design (2005).
CHOOSING A CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT STRATEGY
After establishing the learning objective for the lesson, an instructor should next develop a
strategy for assessing student learning, commonly known as classroom assessment (Angelo &
Cross, 1993). Classroom assessments are not to be confused with graded assignments or
evaluations. Instead, these assessments provide instructors with feedback on what is happening
in the learning process.
Assessments of classroom learning can be conducted prior to, during, and at the end of a
class session. The primary purposes are to determine learners’ prior knowledge about the
lesson topic, to identify misconceptions, and to track student learning. These strategies are not
• Background knowledge probe. It’s important for an instructor to determine what students
already know or believe about a lesson topic before the start of the lesson. Students have
preconceived notions that have powerful effects on how they integrate new learning
(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). The Background Knowledge Probe (BKP)
determines what students bring to the lesson in terms of prior learning and understanding of
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• Paired summaries. At strategic points during a class session, you might stop and have
students pair up to construct a written summary of the material that has been discussed up to
that point in the class period. This is an opportunity for them to compare notes, fill in gaps,
and synthesize the lesson. After about 2 or 3 minutes of paired discussion and writing, ask a
sampling of the pairs to read aloud their summary statements, which will provide you with a
check of whether your learning objectives are being met.
• The minute paper. Perhaps one of the most commonly known classroom assessment tools is
the minute paper (Angelo & Cross, 1993). At the end of a topic or class period, students are
given 1 minute to respond in writing to two prompts provided by the instructor: (1) What is
• Directed paraphrasing. A highly effective means of assessing student understanding of a
particular concept is to ask students to define it so that a specified audience would
understand it (Angelo & Cross, 1993). For example, you might ask a class to write two to
three sentences defining cooperative verbal communication so that an eighth-grade student
• Start, stop, continue. Occasionally, it is desirable to get a reading of the overall classroom
climate to determine whether instructional practices are supporting student learning. Garner
and Emery (1994) suggest the use of a simple feedback tool known as “Start, Stop,
Continue.” Students begin by dividing a piece of paper into three columns. The first column
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is labeled Start; in it students are asked to record teaching practices, policies, and behaviors
that they would like to see the teacher start as a means of supporting their learning. The Stop
SELECTING LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A study of college teaching revealed that good teaching could not be defined by a particular
approach (Bain, 2004). Instead, good teaching embraces activities that serve learning
objectives as well as student needs. Developing a broad repertoire of learning activities also
supports student engagement because any learning environment will have varied challenges.
Six learning activities typically found in college teaching are detailed following.
• Lecturing. Lecturing is a staple of college teaching to which most students are accustomed.
Every academic subject has difficult concepts and principles that are best learned through
deliberative reading and listening to a lecture. However, we can surmise that student
attention and learning during a lecture are predicated on the quality of the lecture
preparation and delivery. Some tips for effective lecturing include
• Begin with an intriguing question, film clip, or provocative statement.
• Post the learning objective(s) on the board or overhead projector.
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• Provide intermittent summaries of key points prior to introducing a new topic.
• Review learning objective(s) and summarize key concepts at the conclusion of the
lecture.
• Brainstorming and “buzz groups.” Brainstorming and buzz groups are active learning
groups created for brainstorming in groups of three to five students. (Groups any larger than
five will likely lose focus or restrict individual participation.) Groups are then assigned a
clearly focused task or problem for a brainstorm discussion or the development of a group
response. Group members are encouraged to take on roles as discussion leader, timekeeper,
and recorder. Instructors provide any necessary assistance to groups without hovering as
they work. Group discussion culminates in an oral report to the class of answers or findings.
• Case studies. Case studies provide students with a real interpersonal dilemma or problem to
analyze. They can be found in newspaper or magazine feature articles, found in television or
• Debates. Another approach to instruction is to offer students an argument or position
statement and have them research and debate the point. Debates can be conducted between
individuals or teams. Debates elicit students’ active participation in that they must prepare a
position with evidence, critically evaluate the opposing position, and summarize both sides.
As an instructor, your role is to moderate the debate discussion and facilitate a general
classroom discussion afterward.
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• Experiential learning activities. As a way of better understanding communication concepts,
students might be asked to act out a simulation or role-play, write a reflection, or complete a
field observation. Be sure to allow time to set the stage for the activity, for students to work
through the activity, and to debrief. The activities found in the Chapter Review serve as a
basis for experiential learning by giving students the opportunity to try new interpersonal
behaviors within their own lives. The Key Term Videos can also inspire students to create
their own videos—either by acting out concepts not covered in the videos or by making
“response videos” to the collection. In addition, the chapter-by-chapter part of this manual
contains experiential activities for each chapter.
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Lesson Plan Template
Topic
Learning objective
Instructional aid
Anticipatory set
Pre
-assessment
Learning activity
Post
-assessment
SAMPLE LESSON PLAN
Topic
Perception and First Impressions
Learning objective
The learner will identify factors influencing impression formation.
Instructional aid
Anticipatory set
Examine three different photographs of
strangers and elicit student responses of
their impressions.
Slides on overhead projector
Pre-assessment
Ask:
What are some factors that influenced
your impressions?
Write student responses on whiteboard
1. What was the basis for making your
decisions about how to answer the
questions?
3.
How do you feel your partner answered
the questions about you?
4.
What does this activity bring up in terms
of chapter concepts?
Key terms to listen for and post on the
whiteboard for defining and illustrating
Algebraic impressions
Stereotypes
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PLANNING FOR DIVERSITY IN THE CLASSROOM
The U.S. population is becoming increasingly diverse, with more than one-third of the
population belonging to a minority group (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Indeed, colleges and
FORMS OF DIVERSITY
Students are diverse in many ways, not all of which are apparent. In fact, it is a safe bet that
your students are probably more different than similar along several important dimensions.
Some student differences may be (but are not always) apparent along the lines of age, gender,
physical disability, race, and ethnicity. These demographic variables can affect classroom
performance and learning. Take, as a simple example, the older student who is balancing
English Language Learners
A student population with an increasing presence on college campuses is English language
learners (or ELL). Although the ELL populate almost any campus, they are most evident on
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campuses with strong international education programming and those that traditionally have
open access admissions, such as comprehensive community colleges. In most cases, these
students are adjusting culturally as well as gaining better facility with the English language.
Indeed, enrollment in interpersonal communication is often a next step outside of college
English as a second language offerings to support the continued enculturation of these
students. Given the apprehension associated with learning a new language, the steps you take
to minimize such apprehension in your classroom will support learning not only for the ELL in
your classroom but for most other students as well. Some reasonable instructional
accommodations you might make include the following:
• Presenting students with reading questions and lecture guides. This provides a “map” for
processing what they read and hear in class.
• Allowing the use of tape recorders during class and translation dictionaries during exams.
• Encouraging (or requiring) students to submit drafts of assignments for your feedback and
direction, and making use of any campus writing support services when necessary.
Selection of Representative Materials and Illustrations
Your choice of instructional and ancillary materials and your use of examples when teaching
create a subtext about your sensitivity to diversity. Choices & Connections makes its cultural
perspective known through theory, research, and application exercises. Particularly notable is
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Chapter 4: “Understanding Culture.” However, these cultural references are only as effective
as the instructor who addresses diversity issues explicitly as part of the teaching and learning
processes. Moreover, the classroom has myriad opportunities for displaying images on
The Nonverbal Dimension of Teaching
Another subtle yet powerful force in the classroom is your nonverbal manner, which either
supports or undermines an atmosphere of inclusiveness. Many other behaviors can be
perceived by students as prejudices or dislikes, including your enthusiastic vocal affirmation of
In an instructional setting, students tend to respond favorably to instructors who demonstrate
nonverbal immediacy (Christophel, 1990). Nonverbal immediacy consists of behaviors such as
smiling at individual students, establishing appropriate eye contact, purposeful movement
around the classroom, and variation in vocal expression. These behaviors signal a desire to be
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Campus Resources to Support Diversity
Your campus resources are another source of support for classroom diversity. Most college
campuses have academic support services for helping students write papers, study for and take
tests, and complete other basic academic skills. Academic labs and support areas can be
mentioned in the syllabus. Consider having staff from these areas come into your class and
USING TECHNOLOGY TO FOSTER LEARNING
Digital technology is the lingua franca of today’s younger college student. The proliferation of
smartphones and tablets makes it difficult not to consider how technology—properly used—
can serve classroom learning. Three technological tools readily available to support student
learning are (1) slide programs, like Microsoft PowerPoint or Apple Keynote; (2) television
and film; and (3) the Internet.
USING POWERPOINT
Given the wide availability of Microsoft PowerPoint, you no doubt have seen dozens of
lectures that are nothing more than an endless set of slides read by the presenter as the
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1. It is easier for students to process the information when
• Slide design is clean and simple and avoids textual clutter.
2. It is less distracting when
• You sustain eye contact with the class rather than with the slide show.
• Animation gimmicks and sound effects are kept to a minimum.
• Time is provided for students to write down information before slide content is discussed.
• Room lighting and projector quality allow sufficient light for note taking and viewing
other instructional materials.
Finally, you must also determine whether to provide students with a handout of the slides prior
to the lecture, afterward, or not at all. Another decision is whether to upload the presentation to
USING TELEVISION PROGRAMMING AND FILM
The media have much to offer in support of communication studies. Most popular television
series and films are now widely available on DVD, and many of them can be used for teaching
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an array of topics. Also, sites and services like Netflix, HBO GO, Amazon Prime, YouTube,
and Hulu are rich sources of media. Such resources can be excerpted or shown in their entirety
to illustrate points during a lecture, to serve as a basis for a class or case-study discussion, or
for students to analyze for an individual or group project.
You can increase the effectiveness of using media in the following ways: First, create clear
learning objectives for using media in your course. Do you want students to see an illustration
of a communication concept or skill? Do you want them to use concepts to critique an
exchange or speech and to make recommendations of a different approach? Do you want them
to analyze how a set of concepts or ideas applies in a relationship? In other words, there should
USING THE INTERNET
A key decision in planning your course is how to incorporate the Web in your teaching. For
example, you might require a traditional research paper that sets guidelines for the use of Web
sites as reference material. On the other hand, you may have a Web-based course that requires
students to participate in discussion forums, post speech videos, or complete interactive online
assignments like quizzes, lessons, or blogs.
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Two considerations should be foremost in planning the use of Web resources. First,
recognize that students’ access to the Web may vary. Access to Web resources and/or the
completion of Web-based assignments may necessitate extra time in campus computer labs,
libraries, or employment sites to complete the required work. It can be helpful to poll the class
in writing to determine how to proceed in forming an assignment and an appropriate time
allotment for assignment completion. (For example, students who primarily use their phone to
access the Web may not prefer to read lots of online material that way. Or, if students are
primarily using tablets, you’ll want to prioritize sites and resources that are mobile friendly.)
USING PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES OF THE TEXTBOOK
Choices & Connections has a plethora of activities and questions designed to enhance student
learning. These features include “How to Communicate” video activities, “Making
Communication Choices” case studies, Key Term and Public Speaking videos, and the Chapter
Review. Detailed following are suggestions for how these features might be used in the
classroom.
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HOW TO COMMUNICATE
Each chapter contains a unique interactive feature that presents students an opportunity to
implement specific communication skills highlighted within the chapter. After considering a
communication dilemma, the authors then walk students through applicable skills before
challenging them to adapt their communication to variations of the situation to really test their
comprehension of the skills. The feature really comes to life in the video activity available on
the text’s accompanying online platform, LaunchPad for Choices & Connections, available at
• Assigning the “How to Communicate” video activity as homework and then facilitating a
class discussion that allows students to share their responses.
• Incorporate the “How to Communicate” feature into group activities and assign each group
different chapters. Have each group prepare a presentation that highlights the dilemma, the
skills, and possible solutions.
• Use “How to Communicate” as a closing feature to each in-class chapter discussion. Show
MAKING COMMUNICATION CHOICES
Every chapter includes a communication dilemma that uses research to encourage students to
plan a course of action in resolving the dilemma. The analysis requires students to synthesize
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chapter ideas, reflect on their perceptions, and take into account the provided research prior to
making an application or response. Here are some ways that this feature could be incorporated
in your teaching:
KEY TERM AND PUBLIC SPEAKING VIDEOS
Every chapter includes prompts to videos LaunchPad for Choices & Connections that illustrate
key terms or provide public speaking resources and examples. Many of the Key Term clips are
accompanied by two reflection questions. This combination allows students to see
communication concepts in action while also testing their comprehension of the topic. Here are
some ways that this feature could be incorporated in your teaching:
• Assign students to write a journal entry or brief paper based on the reflection questions for
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• Ask students to find their own example of a concept from video in the media—online clip,
movie, TV episode, article, book, song, and so forth—and analyze how each example
portrays the concept.