Chapter Nine: Language
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Chapter Goals
Chapter 9 introduces students to the effective use of language in public speaking. As students reach the end
of this chapter they should have an understanding of the following goals:
• To use clear and accurate language in speeches
• To apply the principles for using culturally inclusive and gender-inclusive language
Chapter Outline
I. Language is the system of verbal or gestural symbols a community uses to communicate and is
central to the speechmaking process (pg. 174).
a. Language is a tool we use to shape and describe the world around us.
b. In the public dialogue, language allows us to share our thoughts, question the ideas of
others, and invite our audiences to consider our positions.
II. Language is ambiguous (pgs. 174-175).
a. Semantic triangle of meaning. Figure 9.1, pg. 175.
b. Symbol, appearing at the left corner of the triangle, is the word or phrase spoken by the
speaker.
I. Language and culture (pgs. 175-176).
a. People in different cultures name and define the world differently.
b. In American Sign Language, signs are subtly altered to reflect the visual aspects of
objects and events.
c. In spoken English, words are only occasionally modified to emphasize some aspect of
regional differences in order to offer clarification rather than confusion.
k. Idiom. Fixed distinctive expression whose meaning is not indicated by its individual
words.
i. Idioms are difficult for nonnative speakers and audiences.
II. Language and gender (pg. 178).
a. Table 9.2, pg. 178. Guidelines for gender-inclusive language, from The American
Psychological Association.
III. Language and accuracy (pgs. 179-180).
a. Speakers sometimes use words incorrectly (ex. persecuted vs. prosecuted).
b. Using language accurately is important because errors can affect a speaker’s meaning and
credibility.
c. Tips that can help speakers improve the accuracy of language.
i. Check the definitions of words you are using.
2. Looking up words can save a speaker considerable embarrassment.
1. Use writing and tutoring labs.
iii. Study the language.
2. Take courses that focus on language skills.
4. Study a foreign language.
IV. Language and public speaking (pgs. 181-182).
Oral style. Speaking style that reflects the spoken rather than the written word.
Speakers should use language meant to be spoken and not read.
The most effective speakers “talk” their speeches rather than read them.
More “listenable and easier to understand.
a. Spoken language is more interactive.
i. Speakers make adjustment as they speak, ask or respond to questions, and
monitor their interest and understanding.
b. Spoken language is more casual.
i. Written language tends to be more formal than spoken language.
ii. When speaking, more contractions are used.
iii. We run words together during speaking.
iv. Speakers who speak in a written style sound more distant than speakers who talk
to the audience.
c. Spoken language is more repetitive.
i. Repetition is necessary in oral cultures to help audiences remember stories and
information.
V. Language, imagery, and rhythm (pg. 182-186).
a. Language that creates memorable imagery (pg. 182-186).
i. Simile. Figure of speech that makes an explicit comparison of two things that
uses the words “like” or “as.”
ii. A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two things
by describing one thing as being something else.
b. Language that creates a pleasing rhythm.
i. Rhythm. Arrangement of words into patterns so the sounds of the words
together enhance the meaning of a phrase.
ii. Parallelism. Arrangement of related words so they are balanced, or of related
sentences so they have identical structures.
End of Chapter Activities and Discussion Questions
The following questions can also be found at the end of Chapter 9.
Review Questions and Activities
1. Look up the dictionary definitions of five to seven keywords you will use in your next speech. Do they
mean what you thought they meant? Have you been pronouncing them correctly? If you were using an
2. Bring a newspaper or magazine to class and look for language that is sensitive or insensitive to culture
and gender. In what ways is the language appropriate or inappropriate? What mistakes do you think the
authors of the articles make, if any? What are the implications of these mistakes? What are the
implications of the appropriate choices the author made?
3. As a class, use a computer of cell phone to look up the following commonly confused pairs of words:
accept/except, adverse/averse, affect/effect, anxious/eager, appraise/apprise, between/among,
compliment/complement, compose/comprise, explicit/implicit, fewer/less, healthy/healthful,
imply/infer, lay/lie, nauseated/nauseous, poured/pored, principal/principle, reign/rein,
stationery/stationary, uninterested/disinterested, who/whom.
How many of these words did you have confused before you began this exercise?
This is a very insightful activity for students. During lecture when you discuss how speakers may
confuse words, students will nod in understanding; however, showing them actual examples can really
4. Select a topic for an imaginary speech. Write out your introduction or first main point for that speech.
Now read that to a small audience. Put the paper aside and talk that part of your speech in an oral style.
What differences do you notice? Is the oral style interactive, casual, and repetitive?
5. Divide into groups and select one of the following terms:
smoking political parties war Halloween vacations
Using the seven devices for creating imagery (simile, metaphor, personification, parallelism, repetition,
alliteration, and antithesis), write statements about this topic. Share your results with the class. Which
devices helped you do a particularly good job conveying your ideas? Why do you think so?
Web Activities
1. Merriam-Webster Online
Merriam-Webster is one of the most well respected dictionary publishers in the United States. Explore
their site at http://www.m-w.com/ to learn how to use words more effectively. For example, click on
the “Word of the Day” and use that word in a sentence during the day. Or click on the pronunciation
guide to learn how to say words correctly. What other features of the site do you find useful?
2. American Rhetoric
Access http://www.americanrhetoric.com/to find multiple examples of political speeches. Look
through some of the texts that are available in this website and pay close attention to how language is
used throughout these texts. Does the language reflect written or oral style?
Interactive Student and Professional Speech Videos in MindTap
1. Video Clip 1: Student Speech: Brandi’s Introduction
As you watch Brandi’s story about feeding wildlife, notice at what point you realize the topic of the
speech. At what point do you realize Brandi’s position on this topic? Does her story motivate you to
listen to the rest of her speech? Why or why not?
2. Video Clip 2: Student Speech, Mike Piel, Preview
Watch Mike’s preview of his speech. Based on his preview, do you think his speech will be easy to
follow? What are the topics he will cover? Are there times when a speaker may not want to use a
preview?
3. Video Clip 3: Student Speech, Mike Piel, Conclusion
Watch Mike’s conclusion of his speech. Based on his conclusion, do you think his speech was easy to
follow? What are the topics he covered, did they coincide with the ones he previewed in his
introduction? Are there times when a speaker may not want to use a summary?
4. Video Clip 4: Student Speech, Chelsey, Conclusion
As you watch Chelsey’s conclusion, pay particular attention to how she transitions into her conclusion
with startling statistics. Is her use of statistics effective for her conclusion? How does she also appeal
to her audience as she concludes? Is this effective for her conclusion?
Additional Exercises and Resources
1. Exploring Idioms
Purpose: To understand how we use idioms in our everyday communication.
Which of these idioms do you use? How widely shared do you think the meanings of these idioms are?
How might they confuse someone who doesn’t share your culture?
2. Choosing Gender-Neutral Language
Purpose: To learn how to use gender-neutral language.
neutral language. Did you think the quiz was difficult? What uses of gender biased language were
especially difficult to correct? To what extent do you think gender-neutral language reflects the needs
and experiences of your audience members?
3. Using Similes and Metaphors
Purpose: To appreciate how similes and metaphors can create meaning for audiences.
4. The Semantic Triangle of Meaning
A variation of question #1 is to ask students to bring in rough drafts of the body of their outlines. Have
5. Language and Culture
Have students access, or bring to class yourself, a copy of the article “Lauren Booth—Racial Slurs”
New Statesman, 2 July 2001, p. 63 by Lauren Booth. Using the article as a springboard, discuss the
concept of language and culture and the importance of appropriate labels for different groups. Validate
6. Imagery and Rhythm
As a homework assignment, have students list and define each of the imagery and rhythmic devices
defined on this chapter. Then, have them provide an example of each, other than what is in the textbook.
7. “I Have a Dream” The Written and Spoken Work
Part One: The Written Speech
them read the speech and respond to the following questions:
1) Can you find examples of denotative and connotative meaning in this speech
(Chapter 9) and what role does culture play in these meanings?
Issues related to master statuses and culture usually become apparent in this discussion.
2) Can you identify the different types of imagery (simile, metaphor, and
personification)? Why are those images powerful?
3) Can you identify the different types of rhythm (parallelism, repetition, alliteration,
and antithesis)? Can you get a good sense of the rhythm while reading the speech?
At which points in the speech can you get a sense of the rhythm?
4) Can you locate casual words in this speech? How effective might those words
have been for the audience? Why would it have been important to use those
words?
5) How might the spoken version of this speech be different from the written
version of this speech?
Obviously, this speech was meant to be spoken, however, have students discuss the
potential differences between reading the speech and actually hearing the speech. Some
Part Two: The Spoken Speech
After students have worked in small groups, have them share some of their responses with the class
as a whole. Once they have shared their responses to the above questions, show the actual speech.
After they have seen the speech, have students discuss the differences between the written version
for the speech and the spoken version of the speech. Ask them what makes the spoken version more
The Semantic Triangle
Select 3 or 4 especially complex or ambiguous words from a newspaper article, or from one of
your own speeches. Using the semantic triangle of meaning, identify the symbol, referent, and thought or
reference you have for these words. Are your thoughts and references the same? Find a way to explain
Supplemental Bibliography
Benoit, William L. “Framing Through Temporal Metaphor: The ‘Bridges’ of Bob Dole and Bill Clinton in
their 1996 Acceptance Addresses.” Communication Studies, 52 (Spring 2001): 70-84.
Hayakawa. S.I. Language in Thought and Action, 6th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990.
An excellent investigation of the study of the functions of language, and the relationship of
language and thought. Great lecture resource.
Ivy, Diana K., and Backlund, Phil. Exploring GenderSpeak: Personal Effectiveness in Gender
Communication. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
Ivy and Backlund offer a comprehensive textbook about gender and communication including an
Leap, William. American Indian English. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1993.
For an example of the relationship between language and culture see this book which covers the
structures, tradition, and history of American Indian English.
Montgomery, Martin. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 1995.
Montgomery covers language development and linguistic diversity among cultures, classes, and
genders. He also explores how the representation of the world can differ between languages. A
Sommer, Elyse, and Sommer, Mike (Eds). Similes Dictionary. Detroit: Gale, 1988.
For examples of similes to use in your classroom discussion, this is a great volume.
1985.
A handbook on how to write clearly and accurately to communicate the actual meaning intended.