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Chapter 8: Organizational and Small-Group Communication

Chapter Objectives and Integrator Guide

After reading and thinking about this chapter, students should be able to:

Objective

Resources

1. Define organizational culture

and discuss proper methods

for assessing the culture of

an organization.

Key Terms: Organizational

culture, hierarchy, differentiation

and specialization, strategic

ambiguity, formalization, formal

communication, downward

communication, upward

communication, horizontal

communication, and informal

communication.

In the Text:

Page Reference: pages 153–160

Table 8.1: Questions for Investigating an Organization’s Culture

Table 8.2: Using Findings to Understand an Organization

Skill Builder: Analyze Organizational Culture (p. 156)

Figure 8.1: Example of an Organizational Chart

Challenge Yourself: What can I learn about workplace

communication, so that I can attract an employer’s attention,

interview well, and keep a good job? (p. 136)

Study Question 1 (p. 180)

IM Resources:

Discussion Starter 1: Investigating Organizational Culture

Activity 8.1: Understanding Anticipatory Socialization

Activity 8.2: Reinventing Cybertech

Activity 8.3: An Organizational Big Mac

2. Explain how small groups

and teams function within

organizations and the role

communication plays.

Key Terms: Small group

communication, interdependent,

assigned groups, emergent

groups, task-oriented groups,

relationally-oriented groups,

norms, roles, formal or positional

functions, self-centered functions,

group climate, trust, cohesiveness,

groupthink, and criteria.

In the Text:

Page Reference: pages 160–169

Table 8.3: Types of Task, Maintenance, and Self-Centered

Functions

Table 8.4: Defensive and Supportive Behaviors and Statements

Communicating Globally: Working Cohesively in Diverse

Groups (p. 146)

Study Question 2 (p. 180)

IM Resources:

Discussion Starter 2: Norms, Roles, and Small-Group

Communication

Activity 8.7: Group Problem Solving

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3. Describe leadership as a

process of communication.

Key Terms: Leadership,

management, designated leader,

emergent leader, power, reward

power, punishment power,

coercion, referent power, expert

power, legitimate power,

democratic leader, laissez-faire

leaders, and autocratic leaders.

In the Text:

Page Reference: pages 169-172

Figure 8.2: Leadership versus Management

Connecting Globally: Mediated Communication, Privacy, and

Global Business (p. 172)

Study Question 3 (p. 180)

IM Resources:

Discussion Starter 3: Management and Leadership

Activity 8.8: Leadership Characteristics

Activity 8.9: Leadership Styles

Activity 8.10: Leadership Awareness

Activity 8.11: Leading a Task

Activity 8.12: Influential Leaders

4. Name and explain strategies

for cultivating positive

relationships in

organizations.

Key Terms: Immediacy,

supportive communication,

interaction management, conflict,

avoidance, competition,

compromise, accommodation,

collaboration, verbal

aggressiveness, abusive

supervision, bullying, incivility,

social undermining, and sexual

harassment.

In the Text:

Page Reference: pages 173-179

Table 8.5: A Variety of Techniques for Managing Conflict

Table 8.6: Conflict Management and Communication Tips

Study Question 4 (p. 180)

IM Resources:

Discussion Starter 4: Effective Small Group Interaction

Activity 8.13: Group Observation

Activity 8.14: Sexual Harassment in the Courts

Activity 8.15: Preventing Sexual Harassment

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Chapter Outline

I. What is Organizational Culture?

Organizational culture refers to the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are

common among and that characterize the interactions of organizational members

and the way they work and behave.

A. Investigating organizational culture

i. Organizations communicate their culture in three ways:

1. The ways that employees use language and the stories they

tell

3. The symbols and artifacts on display in the environment.

ii. All three areas are critical to understanding organizational culture.

iii. Employees will not always directly communicate aspects of their

culture.

iv. Be cautious in putting too much interpretation into any single

marker of organizational culture – you should be looking for themes

B. Understanding organizational structure

i. Hierarchy comprises the levels of responsibility and relationships

within an organization.

1. Hierarchical organizations lay out clear procedures for whom

employees report to up the chain of command.

2. The military is an example of a strongly hierarchical

organization.

ii. Differentiation and specialization refers to the division of labor in an

organization and the degree to which each individual has a unique

role and responsibility.

2. The emergency room of a hospital is an example of an

3. Strategic ambiguity refers to intentional uncertainty and

vagueness.

iii. Formalization refers to the rules, procedures, and norms that exist

for carrying out work practices.

C. Analyzing organizational communication practices

i. Formal communication consists of messages that follow prescribed

channels of communication throughout the organization.

1. Downward communication occurs whenever superiors

2. Upward communication occurs when messages flow from

3. Horizontal communication is interaction that flows between

people who are at the same level of the organizational

hierarchy.

ii. Informal communication is any interaction that emerges out of

social interactions among organization members rather than

following the rules of the formal chain of command.

II. Communicating in Small Groups and Teams

Small-group communication is the interaction among three to nine people who

are working together to achieve an interdependent goal.

Interdependent means that group members cannot achieve their goals without

the help of one another.

A. Types of small groups

i. Assigned groups are when individuals are appointed to be

members.

B. Norms and roles in small groups

i. Norms are the beliefs about how individual members should

ii. Roles reflect consistent patterns of interaction or behavior exhibited

over time.

1. Formal role (or positional role) is a role that is assigned

based on an individual’s position or title within a group.

2. Informal role (or behavioral role) is a role that develops

naturally or spontaneously within a group

iii. Functions in groups

1. Task functions are behaviors that directly relate to the

2. Maintenance functions are behaviors that focus on the

3. Self-centered functions are behaviors that serve the needs

of the individual at the expense of the group.

C. Group climate and cohesion

i. Group climate is the emotional tone or atmosphere members create

within the group. Group climate is dependent upon trust,

supportiveness, and cohesion.

1. Trust refers to the belief that members can rely on each

other.

2. Supportiveness refers to an atmosphere of openness in

which members care about each other.

3. Cohesiveness is the attachment members feel toward each

other and the group.

a. Groupthink is a phenomenon that occurs when the

desire for cohesion and agreement takes precedence

over critical analysis and discussion.

b. Some observable signs of groupthink include an

illusion of invulnerability; unquestioned belief in the

mortality of the group; censorship of alternative

viewpoints; and a shared illusion that all members

think the same thing.

D. Decision-making and problem solving

Effective problem solving for groups involved five critical steps:

i. Discussing criteria for an acceptable solution:

1. Criteria are the standards by which a group must judge

potential solutions to a problem.

3. Important criteria are those that should be met, but the group

have some flexibility about them.

ii. Brainstorming and identifying alternatives: When brainstorming,

group members should identify multiple succinct ideas and defer

iii. Evaluating each alternative: in this stage members of the group try

iv. Implementing the plan: in this stage the group tests outs ideas and

fully implements them.

v. Evaluating the outcomes based on the original criteria: at the end of

a project a group should reconvene to evaluate how the outcomes

compared with expected outcomes and goals.

III. Organizational Leadership

A. Communication skills for leaders

i. Leadership

1. The process of using communication to influence the

behaviors and attitudes of others.

ii. Management

1. The process of using communication to maintain structure,

2. Managers maintain the status quo and monitor the

organization in order to remove obstacles that prevent the

execution of established organizational priorities.

B. Types of power and leadership

i. Designated leader is someone who has been appointed or elected

to a leadership position.

ii. Emergent leader is someone who exerts influence toward the

achievement of a group’s goal but who does not hold the formal

position or role or a leader.

iii. Power is the ability to influence others.

2. Punishment power

a. Is based on the ability to withhold from followers what

3. Expert power is based on knowledge or expertise.

4. Legitimate power is given to a person because of a title,

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2. Laissez-Faire leaders take almost no initiative in structuring

group discussions or actions.

3. Autocratic leaders maintain strict control over their group,

including making assignments and giving orders.

IV. Cultivating Positive Relationships in Small Groups

A. Effective small group interactions

i. Relate your statements to preceding remarks

B. Achieving communication competence

i. Immediacy is when people engage in communication behaviors

intended to create perceptions of psychological closeness to

others.

ii. Supportive communication is when people listen with empathy,

acknowledge the feelings of others, and engage in dialogue to help

others maintain a sense of personal control.

2. Validate feelings

4. Be confidential

iii. Interaction management is an approach to communication that

allows a clear flow between topics and idea and in which people

C. Managing conflict

i. Conflict occurs anytime two or more people have goals they

perceive to be incompatible.

ii. Approaches and techniques for managing conflict:

1. Avoidance is denying the existence of conflict or working

around it.

2. Competition involves viewing conflict as a battle and an

3. Compromise includes a willingness to negotiate away some

5. Collaboration is relying on thoughtful negotiation and

reasoned compromise whereby both parties agree that the

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negotiated outcome is the best possible alternative under the

circumstances.

D. Preparing for ethical dilemmas

i. Verbal aggressiveness is communication that attacks the self–

concept of other people in order to inflict psychological pain.

iii. Incivility is when a person demonstrates frequent rude behavior that

may or may not have intent of being harmful.

iv. Social undermining is any action meant to socially isolate another

person from a larger group.

v. Sexual harassment is a form of workplace aggression defined by

an unwelcomed, unsolicited, and repeated behavior of a sexual

nature.

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Discussion Starters

1. Investigating Organizational Culture: Consider the place where you currently

work. Think about how people use language what kinds of stories are told, the

established rituals and routines that are followed, and prominent cultural markers

within the organization. What do you think these things reveal about the

organizational culture and possible communication within the organization? Discuss

2. Norms, Roles, and Small-Group Communication: Think about a group that you

have been a part of where you really feel like the team worked well together. Recall

another time when you felt like a group that you worked with did not function well

together at all. How did the two experiences differ in terms of the norms guiding

3. Management and Leadership: Leaders and managers use communication in very

different ways. Consider someone who you would consider as an effective

manager. How did they interact in their role that enabled the group or organization

to function more efficiently and effectively? Consider someone who you would

4. Effective Small Group Interaction: Have you ever been a part of a group where a

member seems to advance ideas that did not clearly relate to what others in the

group were talking about? Have you ever felt like your contributions were not valued

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Activities

ACTIVITY 8.1 UNDERSTANDING ANTICIPATORY SOCIALIZATION

Purpose: Students should be able to identify various institutions that influence our

anticipatory socialization experiences.

Procedure: Have students identify jobs they currently have, or jobs they have had in

the past: full-time, part-time, long-term, short-term, for large corporations, for small

firms, even volunteer work. Ask them: What did they already know that enabled them to

Have students identify how they learned the skills, information, and other data identified

in the exercise. Who taught them? Did they learn by reading instructions? By observing

Debriefing: This activity introduces students to the various socializing agents that

influence the development of role identities.

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ACTIVITY 8.2 REINVENTING CYBERTECH

Purpose: Students should be able to critically analyze various methods of organizing.

Procedure: Ask students to consider themselves members of Cybertech Inc. Sarah is

the newly appointed president of the company. Sarah wants to make all employees

more conscious of the importance of Cybertech’s customers. She asks, “How can I

change the organization chart to symbolize the importance of the customer?” Each

Discuss the range of charts presented. How are the various internal and external

stakeholders positioned by the various charts? How do the charts highlight and neglect

various aspects of organizational relationships? What do the charts suggest about

communication among various organizational stakeholders?

Debriefing: This activity emphasizes the importance of organizational structure and

highlights both internal and external dimensions of organizational communication.

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ACTIVITY 8.3 AN ORGANIZATIONAL BIG MAC

Purpose: Students should be able to understand how concepts discussed in the

chapter play a role in typical organizations like a fast-food restaurant.

Procedure: Have students go to McDonald’s or another fast food restaurant and

conduct a mini-ethnography of the environment, paying particular attention to the

interactions among co-workers, superiors and subordinates, and employees and

customers. In class, have students in groups of three to four identify key characteristics

of the relationships observed.

Debriefing: In addition to illustrating key concepts from the chapter (e.g., upward and

downward communication, customer service interactions), this exercise can lead to

class discussion about cultural forces (e.g., consumer movement) that may help explain

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ACTIVITY 8.4 GROUP PERVASIVENESS

Purpose: Students should be able to individually realize the pervasiveness of small-

group communication in American culture.

Procedure: Students should be divided into small groups of five to seven members and

should determine how small-group communication has functioned in their lives.

Student interaction should center on the amount of time that we spend in small-group

communication and the different ways small groups serve our individual purposes. For

instance, in what types of groups do college students usually participate? Are there

differences between men and women in the types of small groups to which they

belong? Student comments should address issues such as these.