Speech Chapter 32 Standpoint Theory Outline Introduction Standpoint Theorists Suggest Our View The World

CHAPTER 32

STANDPOINT THEORY

Outline

I. Introduction.

A. Standpoint theorists suggest our view of the world depends on our social location.

B. That social location is shaped by our demographic characteristics, including sex,

race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and economic status.

C. As Julia Wood puts it, “the social groups within which we are located powerfully

shape what we experience and know as well as how we understand and

E. Feminist standpoint theorists focus on the social location of women.

F. They are quick to warn that a social location is not a standpoint.

G. A feminist standpoint is “achieved through critical reflection on power relations and

their consequences.”

H. A standpoint necessarily opposes the status quo.

II. A feminist standpoint rooted in philosophies.

A. Georg Hegel revealed that what people “know” depends upon which group they are

in and that the powerful control received knowledge.

B. Early feminist standpoint theorists were influenced by Marx and Engels’ idea that

the poor can be society’s “ideal knowers.”

C. Standpoint theory is also influenced by symbolic interactionism, which suggests that

gender is socially constructed, and by the postmodernism of theorists such as Jean–

III. The Help: Stories from the lives of marginalized women

A. Passages from the book, The Help, will be used to help describe the theory.

B. Communication professor Rachel Griffin at the University of Utah questions whether

the novel, written by a white woman, accurately represents black voices—a fair

critique.

IV. Women as a marginalized group.

A. Standpoint theorists see important differences between men and women that shape

their communication.

B. Wood does not attribute gender differences to biology, maternal instinct, or women’s

intuition.

1. To the extent that women are distinct from men, she sees the difference largely

2. A culture is not experienced identically by all members of society because of

inequities.

3. Feminist standpoint theorists suggest that women are underadvantaged and,

thus, men are overadvantaged—a gender difference that makes a huge

difference.

C. Harding and Wood point out that women are not a monolithic group, and thus they do

not all share the same social location.

2. An intersection of minority positions creates a highly looked-down-upon location

in the social hierarchy.

3. Wood believes that a sense of solidarity is politically useful if women are to

effectively challenge male domination and gain full participation in public life.

IV. Knowledge from nowhere versus local knowledge.

A. People at the top of the societal hierarchy have the power to define others.

B. Standpoint theorists believe that those who define a field shape the picture of the

world that emerges from that field.

C. This view contrasts sharply with the claim that “truth” is value-free and accessible to

any objective observer.

D. Harding and other standpoint theorists insist there is no possibility of an unbiased

perspective that is disinterested, impartial, value-free, or detached from a particular

historical situation.

E. Harding does not want to abandon the search for reality; she simply believes that the

search should begin from the lives of those in the underclass.

2. However, standpoint theorists believe that the perspectives of subordinate

groups are more complete and thus better than those of privileged groups in a

society.

V. Strong objectivity: Less partial views from the standpoint of women.

A. Harding emphasizes that it’s the perspective generalized from women’s lives that

provides a preferred standpoint from which to begin research.

1. She calls this approach “strong objectivity.”

2. By contrast, knowledge generated from the standpoint of dominant groups

offers only “weak objectivity.”

B. Wood offers two reasons why the standpoints of women and other marginalized

groups are less partial, distorted, and false than those of men in dominant positions.

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1. Marginalized people have more motivation to understand the perspective of the

powerful than vice versa.

2. Marginalized people have little reason to defend the status quo.

C. Harding and Wood emphasize that a woman’s location on the margin of society is a

necessary, but not sufficient, condition to attain a feminist standpoint.

D. They believe a feminist standpoint is an achievement gained through critical reflection

rather than a piece of territory automatically inherited by being a woman.

VI. Theory to practice: communication research based on women’s lives.

A. Wood’s study of caregiving in the United States exemplifies research that starts from

the lives of women.

B. Wood suggests that a standpoint approach is practical to the extent that it generates

an effective critique of unjust practices.

VII. The standpoint of black feminist thought.

A. Patricia Collins claims that “intersecting oppressions” puts black women in a different

marginalized social location than either white women or black men.

B. The different social location means that black women’s way of knowing is different

from Harding and Wood’s standpoint epistemology.

C. She identifies four ways that black women validate knowledge.

1. Lived experience as a criterion of meaning.

VIII. Ethical reflection: Benhabib’s interactive universalism

A. Seyla Benhabib maintains that a universal ethical standard is a viable possibility, one

that values diversity of belief without thinking that every difference is ethically

significant.

B. She holds out the possibility that instead of reaching a consensus on how everyone

should act, interacting individuals can align themselves with a common good.

C. Benhabib insists that any panhuman ethic be achieved through interaction with

collective concrete others rather than imposed on them by the rational elite.

D. Interactive universalism would avoid privatizing women’s experiences.

IX. Critique: Do standpoints on the margins give a less false view?

A. Feminist standpoint theory was originally developed to better appreciate the value of

women’s lived experiences, with the hope that qualitative research on marginalized

groups can bring about societal reform that takes their perspectives seriously.

B. Although comparing male and female experiences has an aesthetic appeal in its

simplicity, many feminist scholars now think that’s too simple.

1. Feminist scholar Kathy Davis (VU University Amsterdam) further notes that

prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

3. For feminist scholars, intersectionality refers to how identities occur at the

crossroads of gender, race, sexuality, age, occupation, and any number of other

characteristics.

4. It’s an intellectual tool that sharpens standpoint theorists’ understanding of

people—people who often defy simple categorization.

C. John McWhorter, an African American professor of English at Columbia University, is

also concerned that some people use standpoint logic to oversimplify the human

condition.

D. Other critics see the concept of strong objectivity as inherently contradictory, since it

seems to appeal to universal standards of judgment

E. Standpoint theory energizes Idaho State University rhetorician Lynn Worsham and

others in the theory’s broad community of agreement who believe that minority

standpoints can be a partial corrective to the biased knowledge that now passes for

truth.

Key Names and Terms

Sandra Harding

A philosopher of science at the University of California, Los Angeles, who has most

advanced standpoint theory among feminist scholars.

Julia Wood

Professor emeritus of communication at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

who has championed and applied standpoint theory within the field of communication.

Social location

Our group memberships that shape our experience of the world and our ways of

understanding it.

Standpoint

Jean-Francois Lyotard

Previously introduced in the Media and Culture introduction, a postmodernist who

favors a stance of “incredulity toward metanarratives,” including Enlightenment

rationality and Western science.

Local knowledge

Knowledge situated in time, place, experience, and relative power; as opposed to

knowledge from nowhere that’s supposedly value free.

Strong Objectivity

African American sociologist at University of Maryland who claims the patterns of

“intersecting oppressions” means that black women are in a different marginalized

place in society than white women or black men.

Seyla Benhabib

Principal Changes

In addition to edits for clarity, this edition highlights the difference between a social

location and a standpoint, which was obscured in previous editions. Whereas the former is the

result of experiences and sense-making, the latter involves important critical reflection on and

awareness of power relations. This point sharpens the chapter to clarify that a standpoint is an

achievement, not a given based on context and biography. The critique has been refined to

examine the theory according to interpretive standards, to include John McWhorter’s critique

of rhetorical appeals to privilege, and to briefly describe intersectionality.

Kick-off Questions & Interaction Starters

• What is knowledge and how do we get it? Do you think knowledge can be independent

of the person(s) searching for it?

• Why might people on the outside have a better view than those in the heart of the

action?

Suggestions for Discussion

A note of caution

You might feel a bit of trepidation as you approach standpoint theory, perhaps

depending on your own social location and the context of your classroom and campus. On

some college campuses, matters of standpoint and social location could be quite

controversial; as just one example, it may have been more challenging to teach this theory on

Ferguson, MO, the 2017 Unite the Right white supremacy rally in Charlottesville, VA, the 2017

and following Women’s March movement in the wake of Donald Trump’s election, and the

#metoo campaign regarding sexual abuse, to name just a few. On one hand, such events serve

as intriguing sites for considering the ideas covered in standpoint theory and could provide

opportunities for engaging class discussion. On the other hand, we would be naive to ignore

the possibility that such discussions may lead to heated class conflict and, perhaps, even

endanger the reputation of the instructor if the classroom discussion is mishandled (or

perceived to be). Therefore, you may want to carefully weigh how your students might react

before leaping into discussion of hot-button issues. To some extent this may depend on your

Standpoint’s critical side

Having read about Tannen, your students may find standpoint theory an intriguing

change. After Tannen’s perspective, which many perceive as nonjudgmental, some will be

gratified and others will be frustrated by Harding’s and Wood’s strong statements about the

superior nature of women’s standpoint and communication. I suspect there will be much

discussion, most of which will probably not be neutral, about this aspect of standpoint theory.

You may want to remind students of one of the challenges of critical theorists: to bring to light

The rhetoric in standpoint theory

You may also want to discuss the role of rhetoric in standpoint theory. As scholars have

noted, no articulation of standpoint can be an unproblematic reflection of experience; every

standpoint is mediated by one’s language, motives, and ethos. In addition, you may want to

discuss how standpoint theory can lead to more productive rhetorical analysis that takes

seriously voices that are often ignored.

The heterogeneity of women

As noted in the chapter, “Harding and Wood are quick to warn against thinking of

women as a monolithic group,” since “economic condition, race, and sexuality” are also factors

that influence standpoint. Yet they also seek solidarity among women. Depending on your

students’ interests (and perhaps their social locations), this point could lead to productive

levied against the 2017 Women’s March, which aimed to unite all women in a common

cause—but did it really? S. T. Holloway, writing for The Huffington Post, is more than a bit

skeptical because she thinks concerns about race weren’t adequately represented in the

March (https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/why-this-black-girl-will-not-be-returning-to-the-

The standpoint of other marginalized groups

How might standpoint theory shed light on the experience of other marginalized

groups? Wood’s and Harding’s research focuses on women, but students may be interested in

discussing the ways research could arise from the experiences of men. In particular, Wood’s

argument that marginalized groups have more motivation to understand the powerful than vice

versa can be seen as a reiteration of W. E. B. Du Bois’s famous notion of “double

consciousness” from The Souls of Black Folk, which was originally published in 1903. Du Bois

Strong objectivity

To understand the implications of a research program based on “strong objectivity,” you

might try having students go through some recent issues of a communication journal. Since

there are many feminists working in the field, they might find some studies that already favor

the strategy of “strong objectivity.” Ask them about how they might reframe other studies that

exhibit what Harding would call a “weak objectivity” in order to give them a “strong objectivity.”

Related questions can be explored. What is gained and lost through this reframing? If all

knowledge is partial, what happens if all studies are based on “strong objectivity”? In other

words, notwithstanding the implications of the negative term “weak,” might there be value in

incorporating both kinds of research in the field?

You may wish to discuss in some detail the critique of strong objectivity (i.e., that the

Application Log

Adrianna

I applaud Harding’s “insistence on local knowledge.” The idea that a person can be a

“transparent eyeball” (like Emerson claimed) is not realistic; each person sees through his or

her own personal interpretive lens. No one can be completely objective. We have discussed

this extensively in my Early American literature class, and I think that this realization is one

important contribution of postmodern theory.

At first I was hesitant to embrace the idea that marginalized people have a more objective or

less distorted view. But then I thought about Frederick Douglass’ narrative and his analysis of

slavery. Douglass saw not only how destructive slavery was to the slaves, but also to the

Exercises and Activities

Standpoint theory applied to other communication theories

If you’re following the order of the chapters in the book, you’ll encounter standpoint

theory fairly late in the semester, and thus your students will have several communication

theories under their belt. It’s worth pointing out to your students that, if we take standpoint

theory seriously, it might challenge much of what they’ve learned this semester. You might go

theory by theory and ask, does this theory seem to exhibit strong or weak objectivity?

Standpoint theory would also call you to consider the identity of the scholars themselves. For

example, if you consider the interpersonal theories, do Burgoon, Baxter, Petronio, and

Haythornthwaite (as women) exhibit a less partial standpoint than male theorists such as

Berger, Altman and Taylor, Pearce and Cronen, and Walther? Would theories developed by

A standpoint and why it matters: The Madhouse on Madison

A fairly germane entry point for standpoint theory is the fundamentality of a standpoint.

I like to make the apt comparison of a seat at a hockey or other sporting game. While all

people attend the same event, every seat’s sightlines are different. By typical standards, the

premiere seats are closest to the glass and in the heart of the action. That’s the spot, if you’re

like me, Em, or Glenn (all of whom are rabid Chicago Blackhawks fans; Andrew’s the odd man

though none of it very clearly. You can see plays develop that those who are eye to eye with

players on ice level never see.

Here’s an interesting point to debate with students: at hockey games, the 200-level

seats are considered the best view of the game. They aren’t always the priciest—that usually is

still the 100-level, on-the-glass spots, but true hockey aficionados will tell you that 200-level

seats are superior for watching the game. There, you’re close to the action and have a real feel

for what’s happening, but you are also above the boards and the top of the glass and get some

perspective. At the United Center (where the Blackhawks play), this level is called the Club

Level and it has perks not available on the other levels (in-seat dining service, more food

what the advantages of others are. Without the comparison, you too are limited. When I finally

made it to the 200-level for a game, I’m afraid it might have ruined me. I used to be content up

high, amongst the rest of the die–hards in the “Madhouse on Madison.” But, in the 200-level

seats, everything was visible and you had the fancy services to boot! As I said, once you have a

little perspective on what you have or don’t have, you see everything differently. You might try

this metaphor out with your students, perhaps adapting it to whatever sport is most popular on

with your students or on your campus.

Another analogy that I have used effectively is the Eiffel Tower. If I wanted to

understand how the structure was built, I would likely understand more standing on the ground

looking up than on the observation deck many stories in the air. Using photos of different

locations around and within the Tower, ask your students what’s gained or lost at each

junction. What do the fringes see that is not part of the scenic view from the top? Harding and

Make the connection between critical theories

If you have gone linearly through the text, you have covered Deetz (ch. 21) and Hall (ch.

27) and therefore, Harding and Wood represent the third theory from the critical tradition (with

muted group theory and co-cultural theory yet to come in ch. 33 and ch. 36, respectively). I

would encourage you to take the opportunity to re-examine the three challenges of critical

Undercover Boss

At times, teaching communication theory can ruin one’s television and movie-going

experiences. In other moments, I have shouted a heart-felt “amen” when I see a perfect

illustration. The television series Undercover Boss is tailor-made for discussing standpoint

theory. The premise of the show is that a CEO or high–placed executive goes “undercover” in

their own organization to find out how things really work. As these large corporations generally

have various locations and tasks, the boss encounters a variety of everyday workers and the

conditions under which they work. Usually, the employee is far more competent in their role

than their “trainee” (the CEO) and often has useful insights that would make the work more

enjoyable, the job more efficient, and the experience better for everyone. I suggest showing a

Other media illustrations

A film that may connect with your students is Mean Girls, which many people consider

to be a modern classic. The main character, Cady Heron, who has previously been

homeschooled by her parents in Africa, begins attending high school in the suburbs. She is

befriended by Janis and Damian, two students who are on the margins of the student

population, but extremely knowledgeable about the school’s system. Early in the film, they

present Cady with a map to the cafeteria and the relative locations of the power players among

but also that “upstairs.” In Downton Abbey, Lord and Lady Grantham’s life of privilege and

advantage is only possible because Carson and Mrs. Hughes keep the house running like a

well-oiled machine. Very aware of the drama upstairs and amongst the servants, they work

diligently to keep everyone happy.

I would wholeheartedly endorse using clips from Hidden Figures (2016) when you teach

this chapter. It tells the story of three African American women, each a pioneer in her area

within the white, male culture of NASA in the 1960s. Two particular scenes might be

compelling additions to your class time. In one scene, Mary Jackson (played by Janelle Monae)

prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Goble Johnson (played by Taraji P. Henson) is a brilliant mathematician, working in the gender–

and racially-segregated space task group. She is forced to walk a half-mile (in heels and all

weather conditions) in order to use a colored people’s bathroom, but after a revealing

showdown about her “absences”, her supervisor (played by Kevin Costner) takes matters into

his own hands regarding the bathroom. It’s a brilliant scene as she explains her predicament,

something he (a white male) was entirely unaware was a problem. It’s a fine example of

standpoint theory’s point: those in privilege are naively unaware that the very structures that

help them are hindrances to others.

Finally, I would suggest John Irving’s Cider House Rules. Homer Wells was raised in an

orphanage by Dr. Larch, who trained the young man as his assistant in his medical practice.

When Homer leaves home and finds work at an apple orchard, he shares the bunkhouse with

the (mostly) black, migrant workers. In a pivotal scene, Homer begins to read the rules that

Further Resources

Standpoint theoretical considerations

For a general assessment of standpoint theory and a discussion and application of its

relevance to rhetorical studies, see Glen McClish and Jacqueline Bacon, “‘Telling the Story Her

Own Way’: The Role of Feminist Standpoint Theory in Rhetorical Studies,” Rhetoric Society

Quarterly, Vol. 32, 2002, pp. 27-55.

Dilmi Aluwihare-Samaranayake, “Ethics in Qualitative Research: A View of the Participants’ and

Researchers’ World from a Critical Standpoint,” International Journal of Qualitative

Methods, Vol. 11, 2012, pp. 64–81.

Standpoints of African-American women

For critiques of white feminists’ viewpoints by African-American women scholars and

discussion of the ways in which racial and gender identities intersect in their lives, see:

▪ bell hooks, Ain’t I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism, South End Press, Boston,

1981.

▪ bell hooks’ essays “Reflections on Race and Sex” and “Representations: Feminism and

110-113) in her collection Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches, Crossing Press,

Freedom, CA, 1984.

▪ Wendy Leo Moore, “Reflexivity, Power, and Systemic Racism,” Ethnic & Racial

Studies, Vol. 35, 2012, pp. 614-619.

Interpersonal and family contexts

Shereen G. Bingham, Kerry L. Beldin, and Laura Dendinger, “Mediator and Survivor

Perspectives on Screening for Intimate Partner Abuse,” Conflict Resolution

Quarterly, Vol. 31, 2014, pp. 305-330.

Andrea L. Tyler and Lameesa Muhammad, “Race, Gender, and Single Parenting: Dismantling

the ‘Invisible’ Myth Around Intellectual Black Female Scholars,” in Autoethnography as a

Lighthouse: Illuminating Race, Research, and the Politics of Schooling, in Stephen D.

Hancock, Ayana Allen, and Chance W. Lewis, (eds.), Information Age Publishing,

Charlotte, NC, 2015, pp. 83-101.

News and Journalism

José Andrés Araiza, “Saying Goodbye to Men: Southern Feminists Publishing News While

Challenging Patriarchy,” Journal of Communication Inquiry, Vol. 38, 2014, pp. 273-290.

Standpoint in the digital age

Sarah J. Jackson and Sonia Banaszczyk, “Digital Standpoints: Debating Gendered Violence and

Racial Exclusions in the Feminist Counterpublic,” Journal of Communication

Inquiry, Vol. 40, 2016, pp. 391-407.

Kimberly A. Scott and Mary Aleta White, “COMPUGIRLS’ Standpoint: Culturally Responsive

Computing and Its Effect on Girls of Color,” Urban Education, Vol. 48, 2013, pp. 657–

681.

Robin Stevens, Stacia Gilliard-Matthews, Jamie Dunaev, Marcus K. Woods, and Bridgette M.

Brawner, “The Digital Hood: Social Media Use Among Youth in Disadvantaged

Neighborhoods,” New Media & Society, Vol. 19, 2017, pp. 950-967.

In sports arenas

Helen Jefferson Lenskyj, “Reflections on Communication and Sport: On Heteronormativity and

Gender Identities,” Communication and Sport, Vol. 1, 2013, pp. 138-150.

Brian K. Richardson and Joseph McGlynn, “Rabid Fans, Death Threats, and Dysfunctional

Teaching idea

Donna R. Pawlowski, (2006). “Who Am I and Where Do I ‘Stand?’,” Communication

Teacher, Vol. 20, 2006, pp. 69–73.

Other applied Contexts

Deborah Ballard-Reisch, “Muted Groups in Health Communication Policy and Practice: The

prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Kate Lockwood Harris, “Re-Situating Organizational Knowledge: Violence, Intersectionality and

the Privilege of Partial Perspective,” Human Relations, Vol. 70, 2017, pp. 263-285.

Aileen Moreton-Robinson, “Towards an Australian Indigenous Women’s Standpoint

Theory,” Australian Feminist Studies, Vol. 28, 2013, pp. 331–347.

Sarah Mosedale, “Women’s Empowerment as a Development Goal: Taking a Feminist

Standpoint,” Journal of International Development, Vol. 26, 2014, pp. 1115-1125.

Alison Wylie, “Feminist Philosophy of Science: Standpoint Matters,” Proceedings and

Addresses of the American Philosophical Association, Vol. 86, 2012, pp. 47–76.